OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Transcription

1 Shara M. Marshall, M.S.

2 Chapter 1- The Human Bdy: An Orientatin Anatmy: OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Subdivisins: Physilgy: Subdivisins: Ex. Principle f Cmplementarity Anatmy and physilgy are inseparable. Levels f Structural Organizatin Chemical: Cellular: Tissue: Organ: Organ system: Organismal: Overview f Organ Systems Nte majr rgans and functins f the 11 rgan systems (Fig. 1.3) 2

3 Survival Needs Nutrients Oxygen Essential fr: 3. Water Site f: Nrmal bdy temperature 5. Apprpriate atmspheric pressure Hmestasis Definitin: A dynamic state f equilibrium Hmestatic Cntrl Mechanisms Invlve: Cmpnents f a Cntrl Mechanism 1. Receptr (sensr) 2. Cntrl center Determines: Receives: Determines: 3. Effectr Receives: 3

4 Prvides: Negative Feedback Examples: Regulatin f bdy temperature Regulatin f bld vlume by ADH Negative Feedback: Regulatin f Bld Vlume by ADH Receptrs sense: Cntrl center (in hypthalamus) stimulates: ADH causes: Psitive Feedback The respnse: May exhibit: Usually cntrls infrequent events: Enhancement f labr cntractins by xytcin Platelet plug frmatin and bld cltting Anatmical Psitin Standard anatmical bdy psitin: Directinal Terms Superir (cranial)- Inferir (caudal)- Ventral (anterir)- Drsal (psterir)- Medial- Lateral- Intermediate- POSITIONAL TERMS AND TERMINOLOGY 4

5 Prximal- Distal- Superficial- Deep- Bdy Planes Plane: Sagittal plane Midsagittal (median) plane Parasagittal plane Frntal (crnal) plane Transverse (hrizntal) plane Oblique sectin Bdy Cavities Drsal cavity Tw subdivisins: Cranial cavity Vertebral cavity Ventral cavity Tw subdivisins (separated by diaphragm): Ventral Bdy Cavities Thracic cavity subdivisins: Tw pleural cavities Mediastinum 5

6 Pericardial cavity Abdminpelvic cavity subdivisins: Abdminal cavity Pelvic cavity Serus Membranes (Sersae) Definitin: Parietal sersa: Visceral sersa: Sersae named accrding t their site and rgan assciatin Pleura: Pericardium: Peritneum: Abdminpelvic Regins Nine divisins used primarily by anatmists Abdminpelvic Quadrants Divisins used primarily by medical persnnel 6

7 Other Bdy Cavities Oral and digestive cavities Nasal cavity- Orbital cavities Middle ear cavities- Synvial cavities - Chapter 2-Chemistry Cmes Alive BASIC CHEMISTRY Matter Definitin: States f matter: Slid Liquid Gas Energy Definitin: Types f energy: Kinetic Ptential Frms f Energy Chemical energy Electrical energy Mechanical energy Radiant r electrmagnetic energy Energy Frm Cnversins Cmpsitin f Matter Elements 7

8 Majr elements f the human bdy: Each has unique prperties: Physical Prperties Chemical Prperties Atms: Three imprtant subatmic particles in atms: Atmic Structure Neutrns Mass = Prtns Mass= Electrns Mass= Identifying Elements Atms f different elements cntain different numbers f subatmic particles Cmpare hydrgen, helium and lithium Atmic number = Mass number = Istpes = Atmic weight = Radiistpes 8

9 Mlecules and Cmpunds Mst atms cmbine chemically with ther atms t frm mlecules and cmpunds Mlecule (e.g., H 2 r C 6 H 12 O 6 ) Chemical Bnds Cmpund (e.g., C 6 H 12 O 6 ) Octet rule: Chemically Inert Elements Chemically Reactive Elements Types f Chemical Bnds: Cvalent, Inic, Hydrgen Cvalent Bnds Frmed by: Allws: Sharing f electrns may be equal r unequal Equal sharing prduces: Ex. CO 2 Unequal sharing by atms with different electrn-attracting abilities prduces: Ex. H 2 O Atms with six r seven valence shell electrns are electrnegative, e.g., xygen Inic Bnds Ins are frmed by transfer f valence shell electrns between atms Anins ( charge): Catins (+ charge): Attractin f ppsite charges results in: Inic cmpunds frm crystals instead f individual mlecules Ex. NaCl (sdium chlride) 9

10 Hydrgen Bnds Attractive frce between: Imprtant in intramlecular bnds, hlding a large mlecule in a three-dimensinal shape CHEMICAL REACTIONS Synthesis Reactins A + B AB Always invlve: Anablic Endergnic reactins- Decmpsitin Reactins AB A + B Reverse synthesis reactins Invlve: Catablic- Exergnic reactins- Rate f Chemical Reactins Rate f reactin is influenced by: Temperature: Cncentratin: Particle size: Catalysts: Enzymes: Classes f Cmpunds Inrganic cmpunds Organic cmpunds 10

11 Water Salts Ins (electrlytes) are: Acids and Bases Bth are electrlytes Acids : HCl H + + Cl Bases: NaOH Na + + OH Acid-Base Cncentratin Acid slutins cntain [H + ] As [H + ] increases: Alkaline slutins cntain bases (e.g., OH ) As [H + ] decreases (r as [OH ] increases): ph= Neutral slutins: ph = Acidic slutins ph = Alkaline slutins ph= Organic Cmpunds Many are plymers: Examples: 11

12 Synthesized by: Brken dwn by: Carbhydrates Cntain C, H, and O [(CH 2 0) n ] Three classes Mnsaccharides- Disaccharides- Plysaccharides- Functins: Majr functin: Als functin in: Lipids Mstly insluble in: Cntain: Fur Main types: Triglycerides, Phsphlipids, Sterids, Eicsanids Triglycerides Triglycerides Cmpsed f: Main functins Saturatin f Fatty Acids Saturated fatty acids Have: Fund in: 12

13 Unsaturated fatty acids Have: Reduced number f: Fund in: Phsphlipids Mdified triglycerides: Cmpsed f: Head and Tail regins: Imprtant in: Sterids Have: Examples f sterids include: Prteins Functin in: Cntain: Exhibit fur levels f rganizatin Primary Secndary Tertiary Quaternary Fibrus and Glbular Prteins Fibrus (structural) prteins Examples: keratin, elastin, cllagen, and certain cntractile fibers Glbular (functinal) prteins Specific functinal regins called: Examples: antibdies, hrmnes, mlecular chapernes, and enzymes Prtein Denaturatin Definitin: Reversible in mst cases 13

14 Enzymes Functin: Characteristics f Enzymes The enzyme binds t: The enzyme is released: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Prtein Synthesis DNA is: Gene: Triplets f nucletide bases: Each triplet specifies: Rles f the Three Main Types f RNA Messenger RNA (mrna) Ribsmal RNA (rrna) Transfer RNAs (trnas) Transcriptin Transfers: RNA plymerase 14

15 Translatin Cnverts: Invlves use f: Genetic Cde Each triplet in DNA is represented by a cdn Cdn Steps f Translatin mrna: Anticdn f a trna: New amin acids: Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA are: Cntain: Cmpsed f: Dexyribnucleic Acid (DNA) Cntains fur nitrgen cntaining bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytsine (C), and thymine (T) Prvides: 15

16 Ribnucleic Acid (RNA) Cntains fur nitrgen cntaining bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytsine (C), and uracil (U) Three varieties f RNA carry ut the DNA rders fr prtein synthesis mrna: trna: rrna: Adensine Triphsphate (ATP) Functin: Phsphrylatin: Such primed mlecules: Chapter 3-Cells: The Living Units Generalized Cell All cells have sme cmmn structures and functins Human cells have three basic parts: Plasma membrane THE PLASMA MEMBRANE Cytplasm Nucleus Plasma Membrane Separates: 16

17 Interstitial fluid (IF) = ECF that surrunds cells Membrane Lipids 75% phsphlipids (lipid bilayer) Phsphate heads: Fatty acid tails: 5% glyclipids 20% chlesterl Membrane Prteins Integral prteins are: Integral prteins functin as: Peripheral prteins are: Peripheral prteins functin as: Functins f Membrane Prteins (See Figure 3.4) Membrane Junctins Three types: Tight junctin - Desmsme - Gap junctin - Membrane Transprt Plasma membranes are: As substances mve within r thrugh cells they d s alng a cncentratin gradient which is defined asz: Types f Membrane Transprt Passive transprt prcesses Active transprt prcesses Passive Transprt What determines whether r nt a substance can passively permeate a membrane? 1. Lipid slubility f substance 2. Size f the mlecule passing (therefre the size f the channel/carrier) Three Passive Transprt Prcesses: 17

18 Simple diffusin Facilitated diffusin (carrier r channel mediated) Osmsis (fr slvent mvement nly) Passive Transprt: Simple Diffusin In simple diffusin: Passive Transprt: Facilitated Diffusin In facilitated diffusin: Exhibit: Are saturable: Can be regulated: Passive Transprt: Osmsis Osmsis is: Water diffuses thrugh plasma membranes thrugh: Osmlarity: When slutins f different smlarity are separated by a membrane: When smsis ccurs in cells: Tnicity Tnicity: Istnic: Hypertnic: Hyptnic: Summary f Passive Prcesses Als see Table 3.1 and Figure 3.7 Active Transprt Requires carrier prteins that: 18

19 Active Transprt: Primary In primary active transprt: The Sdium-ptassium pump (Na + -K + ATPase) is a specific type f primary active transprt Lcated in: Invlved in: Maintains: Membrane Ptential Due t: Resting membrane ptential (RMP): Ranges frm 50 t 100 mv in different cells Results frm diffusin and active transprt f ins (mainly K + ) Active Transprt: Secndary Secndary active transprt depends n: Can invlve ctransprters which: Symprt system: Antiprt system: Vesicular Transprt Vesicular transprt is used t mve: Tw Main Types: Excytsis Endcytsis ORGANELLES OF THE CYTOPLASM Cytplasm Lcated between: Cytsl Cytplasmic rganelles (prtein, salts, sugars, etc.) Cytplasmic Organelles Membranus Mitchndria Perxismes 19

20 Lyssmes Endplasmic reticulum Glgi apparatus Nnmembranus Cytskeletn Centriles Ribsmes Mitchndria Prvide: Cntain: Ribsmes Site f: Free ribsmes: Membrane-bund ribsmes (n rugh ER): Endplasmic Reticulum (ER) System f: Cntinuus with: Tw varieties: Rugh and Smth ER Rugh ER External surface: Manufactures: Synthesizes: Smth ER Its enzymes catalyze reactins invlved with:: In the liver: In testes: Synthesis f In skeletal and cardiac muscle: Glgi Apparatus Prteins exit via: 20

21 Lyssmes Spherical membranus rganelles cntaining: Can degrade/breakdwn: Ingested bacteria, viruses, and txins nnfunctinal rganelles Break dwn and release glycgen Break dwn bne t release Ca 2+ Perxismes Membranus sacs cntaining: Cytskeletn Elabrate series f rds thrughut cytsl Micrtubules Micrfilaments Intermediate filaments- Centriles Invlved in: Fund within: Cellular Extensins Flagella Cilia mve: Micrvilli Nucleus Genetic library with: Respnds t: Surrunded by: Cntains threadlike strands f DNA (30%), histne prteins (60%), and RNA (10%) called: 21

22 Als cntains nucleli: CELL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION The Cell Life Cycle Includes: Interphase Perid frm: Interphase has three subphases: G 1 (gap 1) S phase (synthetic phase) G 2 (gap 2) DNA Replicatin Occurs During the S-phase f Interphase Helicase: Each nucletide strand: DNA Plymerase: End result: This prcess is called: Cell Divisin (Mitsis) Essential fr: Des nt ccur in mst mature cells f nervus tissue, skeletal and cardiac muscle Cell Divisin Includes tw distinct events 1. Mitsis fur stages f nuclear divisin: Prphase Metaphase Anaphase Telphase 2. Cytkinesis divisin f cytplasm by cleavage furrw 22

23 Prphase Metaphase Anaphase Telphase Cytkinesis Chapter 4-Tissue: The Living Fabric Fur tissue types in the bdy Epithelial tissue Cnnective tissue Muscle tissue Nerve tissue TISSUES Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium) Tw main types (by lcatin): 1. Cvering and lining epithelia 2. Glandular epithelia 23

24 Characteristics f Epithelial Tissue 1. Cells have: Apical surface: Basal surface: 2. Are cmpsed f: 3. Supprted by: Bth laminae frm: 4. Avascular 5. High rate f regeneratin Classificatin f Epithelia T Classify Epithelia ask tw questins: 1. Hw many cell layers? 1 = >1 = 2. What type f cell? Squamus- Cubidal- Clumnar (If stratified, name accrding t apical layer f cells) Epithelial Tissue Types *Fr each f the fllwing types f epithelia, nte descriptin, functin and lcatin* Simple Epithelia Simple Squamus Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Tw ther lcatins f simple squamus epithelia: Prvides a slick, frictin reducing lining fr lymphatic vessels and hllw rgans f Cardivascular System= Fund in serus membranes lining the ventral bdy cavity and cvering its rgans= 24

25 Simple Cubidal Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Simple Clumnar Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Pseudstratified Clumnar Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Stratified Epithelia Stratified Squamus Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Stratified Cubidal and Clumnar Stratified cubidal: Stratified clumnar: Transitinal Epithelium Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Glandular Epithelia Sme epithelial tissue is mdified int glands that prduce and secrete prducts Endcrine Glands- Excrine Glands- Unicellular Excrine Glands- 25

26 Multicellular Excrine Glands- Mercrine- Hlcrine- Apcrine- Cnnective Tissue Mst abundant and widely distributed tissue type Fur classes Cnnective tissue prper Cartilage Bne tissue Bld Majr Functins f Cnnective Tissue Characteristics f Cnnective Tissue Cnnective tissues have: Structural Elements f Cnnective Tissue Grund substance- Allws: Cmpnents: Prteglycans: Three types f fibers Cllagen Elastic 26

27 Reticular Cells blast cell types: cyte cell types: Fibrblasts: Chndrblasts and chndrcytes: Osteblasts and stecytes: Hematpietic stem cells: Fat cells- White bld cells- Mast cells- Macrphages Cnnective Tissue Prper Tw subclasses: Lse cnnective tissue- Dense Cnnective tissue- Lse Cnnective Tissue Arelar Cnnective Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Adipse Cnnective Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: 27

28 Reticular Cnnective Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Dense cnnective tissue Dense regular Cnnective Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Dense irregular Cnnective Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Elastic Cnnective Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Cartilage Cnnective Tissue Three types f cartilage: Hyaline Cartilage Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Elastic Cartilage Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Fibrcartilage Descriptin: Functin: 28

29 Lcatin: Bne (Osseus) Cnnective Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Bld Cnnective Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Nervus Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Three Types f Muscle Tissue: Skeletal Muscle Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Cardiac Muscle Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: Smth Muscle Tissue Descriptin: Functin: Lcatin: BODY MEMBRANES Epithelial Membranes The Cutaneus membrane: Mucus membranes Serus Membranes 29

30 Always ccur in pairs: Inflammatin TISSUE REPAIR Organizatin and restred bld supply Regeneratin and fibrsis Develpmental Aspects Primary germ layers: ectderm, mesderm, and endderm Specialize t frm fur primary tissues Nerve tissue arises frm: Muscle and cnnective tissue arise frm: Endderm gives rise t: Epithelial tissues arise frm: Chapter-5 The Integumentary System INTEGUMENT Skin (Integument) Cnsists f three majr regins 1. Epidermis 2. Dermis 3. Hypdermis (superficial fascia) 30

31 Epidermis Tissue type: Cells f epidermis Keratincytes Melancytes: Epidermal dendritic (Langerhans) cells Tactile (Merkel) cells Layers f the Epidermis: Stratum Basale (Basal Layer) Als called stratum germinativum: Takes days Layers f the Epidermis: Stratum Spinsum (Prickly Layer) Layers f the Epidermis: Stratum Granulsum (Granular Layer) Layers f the Epidermis: Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer) Layers f the Epidermis: Stratum Crneum (Hrny Layer) Functins: 31

32 Prtects frm: Barrier against: Dermis Tw layers: Layers f the Dermis: Papillary Layer Papillary layer Dermal papillae cntain: Layers f the Dermis: Reticular Layer Reticular layer Skin Markings: Frictin Ridges Skin Clr Three pigments cntribute t skin clr: 1. Melanin Freckles and pigmented mles are: 2. Cartene 3. Hemglbin Derivatives f the epidermis APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN 32

33 Sweat Glands Tw main types f sweat (sudriferus) glands 1. Eccrine (mercrine) sweat glands Sweat: 2. Apcrine sweat glands cnfined t axillary and angenital areas Sebum: Ducts cnnect t: Specialized apcrine glands Ceruminus glands Mammary glands-- Sebaceus (Oil) Glands Sebum Hair Functins Distributin Cnsists f: Cntains: Hair pigments: Gray/white hair: Hair Fllicle Tw-layered wall: 33

34 Hair bulb: Hair fllicle receptr (rt hair plexus): Sensry nerve endings arund each hair bulb Arrectr pili Types f Hair Vellus Terminal Hair Thinning and Baldness Alpecia True (frank) baldness Structure f a Nail Structures t knw: nail matrix, nail rt, bed and free edge, hypnychium and epnychium Functins f the Integumentary System Prtectin three types f barriers Chemical Physical/mechanical barriers Bilgical barrier Bdy temperature regulatin 34

35 Cutaneus sensatins Metablic functins 5. Bld reservir 6.Excretin DISORDERS OF THE SKIN Skin Cancer Risk factrs Three majr types: Basal cell carcinma Squamus cell carcinma Melanma Basal Cell Carcinma Arises frm: Appearance: Squamus Cell Carcinma Arises frm: Appearance: Melanma Can begin: 35

36 Appearance: The American Cancer Sciety suggests that peple shuld apply the ABCD rule: A: Asymmetry; B: Brder C: Clr D: Diameter Burns Heat, electricity, radiatin, certain chemicals Burn (tissue damage, denatured prtein, cell death) Immediate threat: Dehydratin and electrlyte imbalance, leading t renal shutdwn and circulatry shck The Rule f Nines is used t estimate the vlume f fluid lss frm burns by cmputing the percentage f bdy surface burned This methd: Partial-Thickness Burns First degree Secnd degree Full-Thickness Burns Third degree Chapter 6-The Skeletal System Functins f Bnes Supprt Prtectin BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES 36

37 Mvement Strage Bld cell frmatin (hematpiesis) in: Triglyceride (energy) strage in: There are fur types f bnes classified by their vshapes: Lng bnes- Ex. humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, phalanges Shrt bnes- Sesamid bnes- Flat bnes- Ex. Sternum, ribs, mst skull bnes Irregular bnes Ex. cxal, vertebrae Types f Osseus Tissue Cmpact bne (dense) - Spngy (cancellus) - Bne Markings (Refer t Table 6.1) Bne Markings: Prjectins Prjectins that are sites f muscle and ligament attachment Tubersity Crest Trchanter Line Tubercle Epicndyle Spine Prcess Prjectins that help t frm jints Head- 37

38 Facet- Cndyle- Ramus- Depressins and Openings fr the passage f bld vessels and nerves Meatus - Sinus- Fssa- Grve- Fissure- Framen- Structure f a Lng Bne Diaphysis (shaft) - Epiphyses Epiphyseal line r plate- Membranes Peristeum The uter fibrus layer The inner stegenic layer: Endsteum Als cntains: Shrt, Irregular, and Flat Bnes all share a simple design: They all cnsist f thin plates f: Diplë Lack: Lcatin f Hematpietic Tissue (Red Marrw) Red marrw cavities f adults Trabecular cavities f the heads f: Trabecular cavities f : Red marrw f newbrn infants Micrscpic Anatmy f Bne: Cmpact Bne Haversian system, r Osten = structural unit 38

39 Lamellae Cncentric Interstitial Circumferential - Central (Haversian) canal - Perfrating (Vlkmann s) canals - Ostecytes Canaliculi Micrscpic Anatmy f Bne: Spngy Bne Organic Cmpnents Osteid- Inrganic Cmpnents Hydrxyapatites [Ca 10 (PO 4 ) 6 (OH) 2 ]- Ostegenesis (ssificatin) BONE DEVELOPMENT Tw Types f Bne Frmatin Intramembranus ssificatin- Used fr: Steps Develpmental Aspects: Fetal Skull Infant skull has mre bnes than the adult skull Skull bnes such as the mandible and frntal bnes are unfused 39

40 At birth, skull bnes are cnnected by fntanelles Fntanelles Fur fntanelles Endchndral ssificatin - Used fr: Steps 1. Frmatin f bne cllar arund hyaline cartilage mdel 2. Deteriratin f cartilage matrix 3. Frmatin f spngy bne by peristeal bud Peristeal bud- 4. Frmatin f medullary cavity 5. Ossificatin f epiphyses Grwth in Length f Lng Bnes Als called interstitial grwth Epiphyseal plate cartilage abutting the diaphysis rganizes int fur functinal znes: Prliferatin, Hypertrphic, Calcificatin, & Ossificatin Grwth in the epiphyseal plate is accmpanied by remdeling f epiphyseal ends The tp layer (epiphyseal plate) f the hyaline cartilage plate cntains: Older chndrcytes (clser t diaphysis):: Osteblasts secrete: Sex hrmnes (teststerne and estrgen): At the end f adlescence: 40

41 Appsitinal Grwth Appsitinal Grwth- Osteblasts: Osteclasts: Bne Remdeling- BONE REMODELING AND REPAIR Remdeling ccurs: In healthy adults, the rate f bne resrptin = Remdeling ccurs: Bne Depsit Osteblasts depsit: Requires a diet rich in prtein; vitamins C, D, and A; calcium; phsphrus; magnesium; and manganese Hrmnal cntrl Calcitnin- Bne Resrptin Osteclasts secrete: Osteclasts may: Digested prducts: Hrmnal cntrl Parathyrid hrmne (PTH) - Repair f Bne Fractures Fracture - Fracture Types Simple 41

42 Cmpund- Cmminuted- Cmpressin- Depressed Impacted- Spiral- Greenstick- Phases f Repair 1. Hematma frmatin- 2.Fibrcartilaginus callus frmatin 3.Bny callus frmatin 4.Bne callus remdeling Final structure resembles riginal Hmestatic Imbalances Ostemalacia - BONE IMBALANCES Rickets - Osteprsis 42

43 Risk factrs Pagets Disease Chapter 7 - The Skeletn THE SKELETON The skeletn accunts f 20% f bdy mass There are 206 bnes in the human skeletn Ligaments Divisins f the Skeletn The Axial Skeletn Axial Skeletn & Appendicular Skeletn- Cntains f 80 bnes that cllectively frm the axis f the bdy trunk Prtect the brain and spinal crd and rgans within the thracic cavity Three majr regins f the axial skeletn Skull Vertebral clumn Thracic cage Hyid The Skull General Characteristics Cmpsed f: Cranial bnes: Facial bnes: Mst bnes f the skull are: 43

44 Majr Sutures f the Skull Fur sutures mark the articulatins f parietal bnes with frntal, ccipital, and tempral bnes: Crnal (frntal) suture- Sagittal suture- Lambdid suture- Squamus suture- The Skull Calvaria Cranial base (flr) f the skull is divided int three regins: Anterir cranial fssa- Middle cranial fssa- Psterir cranial fssa- Cavities Fur pair f cavities within the skull bnes called: The fur pair are: Sphenid Ethmid Maxillary Frntal Each cavity is lined with mucus membranes that frm mucus, which drains int the nasal cavity The Orbits Cmpsed f: The Nasal Cavity The rf, superir/lateral walls and superir prtin f the nasal septum are frmed by: The flr is frmed anterirly by The cavity is divided int right and left halves by Nasal cnchae n the lateral walls: The cnchae and septum are lined with a mucus secreting mucsa that mistens & warms air, helps cleanse it f debris Cribrifrm plate - 44

45 The Vertebral Clumn General Characteristics Cntains 33 vertebrae,sme f which are fused in adults. Intervertebral discs- Inner part Nucleus pulpsus- Outer part Annulus fibrsus- Herniated disc- Vertebral Clumn: Curvatures Increase the resilience and flexibility f the spine Fur nrmal curvatures Tw primary curvatures- Tw secndary curvatures- The Appendicular Skeletn Characteristics Includes: REVIEW ALL APPENDICULAR BONES LISTED IN YOUR LAB MANUAL. KNOW THE LOCATION, LISTED STRUCTURES, AND ARTICULATIONS. Ntes n Articulatins: The scapula is the nly attachment the arms have t the trunk f the bdy. The fibula des nt articulate with the femur. The tibia articulates superirly with the femur and the fibula. Bth the tibia and fibula articulate with the talus bne distally t frm the ankle (medial and lateral mallelus) Cmparisn f the Male and Female Pelvis: The true pelvis is: The pubic angle is in females and in males. The acetabula are: Chapter 8-Jints JOINTS Intrductin Jint (Articulatin) - Functins f jints: 45

46 Classificatin f Jints There are tw ways t classify jints: Functinal Classificatin f Jints based n amunt f mvement allwed by the jint Synarthrses Amphiarthrses Diarthrses Structural Classificatin f Jints - Based n material binding bnes tgether and whether r nt a jint cavity is present (Fibrus, Cartilaginus, Synvial) Fibrus jints- Three types f fibrus jints: Sutures- Syndesmses- Gmphses- Cartilaginus Jints- Tw types f cartilaginus jints Synchndrses- Symphyses- Synvial Jints General Structure f Synvial Jints Articular cartilage- Jint (synvial) cavity A duble-layered jint capsule- Synvial fluid May have wedges f: Fibrus (bursae) lined with: Types f Synvial Jints Plane Jints- Hinge Jints Pivt Jints Cndylid Jints Saddle Jints Ball-and-Scket Jints 46

47 Cmmn Jint Injuries Sprains Cartilage injuries Dislcatins Bursitis and Tendnitis Arthritis Acute frms: Chrnic frms: Gliding mvements MOVEMENTS AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS Examples: Intercarpal, intertarsal jints; between articular prcesses f vertebrae Angular mvements Mvements that ccur alng the sagittal plane: Flexin - Extensin - Hyperextensin- Mvements that ccur alng the frntal plane: Abductin Adductin Circumductin Rtatin Examples: Between C 1 and C 2 vertebrae Rtatin f humerus and femur Special mvements Mvements f radius arund ulna: Supinatin Prnatin 47

48 Mvements f the ft: Drsiflexin- Plantar flexin- Inversin Eversin Mvements in a transverse plane: Prtractin Retractin Elevatin Depressin Oppsitin f the thumb - Chapter 9-Muscles and Muscle Tissue MUSCLES AND MUSCLE TISSUES Muscle Functins Overview f Muscle Tissue Three Types f Muscle Tissue 1. Skeletal muscle tissue: 2.Cardiac muscle tissue: 3.Smth muscle tissue: 48

49 SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE Each muscle is served by ne artery, ne nerve, and ne r mre veins Three layers f cnnective tissue sheaths surrund skeletal muscle: Epimysium (fascia)- Perimysium- Endmysium - Tendn - Muscle Actin Actin Attachments Origin Insertin - Functinal Classificatin Prime mver- Synergist Antagnist - Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure Myfibrils A muscle fiber is cmpsed f thusands f stacked, cylindrical, cntractile structures called: Each myfibril cnsists f smaller cntractile units called: Each sarcmere cntains an rderly arrangement f rd-like prtein filaments called: Thick filaments Micrscpic Anatmy Sarcplasm Myglbin Thin filaments Sarclemma- T (transverse) tubules - Sarcplasmic Reticulum - 49

50 Terminal cisternae - Sarcmere Structure Sarcmere Myfilaments- filaments that cnstitute myfibrils A sarcmere extends frm Z disc t Z disc Z line (band) Sarcmere Regins H zne (band) A band I band - M line- NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION The Neurmuscular Junctin Mtr Neurns Skeletal muscle is innervated by: Each muscle is served by: Neurn axns: Mtr unit Neurmuscular Junctin includes: Each axn terminal frms: Synaptic cleft Axn Terminal Synaptic vesicles Acetylchline (Ach) When a nerve impulse reaches the axn terminal, Ca2+: This causes: 50

51 Excytsis f: The Mtr End Plate Cntains: Respnsible fr: End plate ptential: THE ACTION POTENTIAL AND THE SARCOLEMMA Resting Membrane Ptential Sarclemma The difference between the charge inside and utside the membrane is called: Actin Ptential Generatin Steps: Ach Binding f Ach t receptrs causes: This allws: Deplarizatin This prduces: This causes: Prpagatin - The deplarizatin wave spreads t: Deplarizatin travels dwn the sarclemma: 51

52 Once a threshld vltage is reached: The AP: Replarizatin- Due t: Abslute refractry perid The actin ptential includes all f the abve steps: Deplarizatin, Prpagatin, and Replarizatin Destructin f Acetylchline Effects are quickly terminated by: Prevents: Sliding Filament Mechanism CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER When a muscle fiber cntracts: In a relaxed state: During a cntractin: Ultra structure f Myfilaments The structure f actin and mysin play a majr rle in the sliding filament mechanism Thick Filament (Mysin) Structure- The head f each mysin mlecule: Mysin heads: Mysin: Thin Filament (Actin) Structure Tw actin strands: Trpnin (prtein) mlecules: Nrmally, the trpmysin strand: 52

53 Steps in the Sliding Filament Mechanism In a relaxed state, the actin filaments: ATP binds t the mysin head and: The energy released is stred and the mysin head is: An actin ptential travels dwn the sarclemma and dwn the T-tubules The T-tubules: The impulse causes: Ca2+ ins: Trpnin and trpmysin cmplex: The active sites fr binding f the mysin head are uncvered. Mysin heads bind t Actin Once each mysin head binds t actin: As the mysin head tilts inward it pulls the actin filament twards the M line This inward pulling f the actin: Once the pwer strke has ccurred: Binding f the ATP: The newly attached ATP: This prcess: SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION Muscle Twitch A muscle twitch is: There are three phases f a twitch: Latent perid: Perid f cntractin: Perid f relaxatin: Graded Muscle Respnses Variatins in the degree f muscle cntractin are called: 53

54 Required fr: There are tw ways t grade a muscle respnse: Changing the frequency f stimulatin Changing the strength f stimulatin Wave Summatin If a secnd stimulus is delivered t a muscle in rapid successin: Since the muscle is already partially cntracted when the secnd cntractin begins: The cntractins: This will nt be true if: Tetanus Increase frequency f stimulus- This leads t: Further increase in stimulatin rate: Prlnged tetanus will ultimately result in muscle fatigue. Multiple Mtr Unit Summatin (Recruitment) Threshld stimulus: Maximal stimulus: At maximal stimulus: Muscle Tne A state f: Results in: Due t: 54

55 Types f Cntractins Istnic cntractins- Ismetric cntractins- MUSCLE METABOLISM Energy fr Cntractin ATP Muscles: It is needed fr: Muscles: There are three pathways that a muscle can use t generate ATP: Direct phsphrylatin f ADP by creatine phsphate (CP) Anaerbic pathway Aerbic pathway Creatine Phsphate When ATP is depleted in a muscle cell: Creatine phsphate reserves: During inactivity: Aerbic Respiratin Glucse is brken dwn (with the use f xygen) t: This prcess requires: Mst f this prcess ccurs in: This prcess: Mst f the energy: Enugh energy t allw fr: Glucse + Oxygen Carbn Dixide + Water + ATP 55

56 Anaerbic Glyclysis and Lactic Acid Frmatin (Anaerbic Respiratin) Glyclysis Occurs: Occurs in: If xygen is available: If xygen is nt available: Anaerbic glyclysis Occurs withut: Occurs within: Prduces: Prvides: Use f Energy Systems Energy Systems Used During Activities ATP and Creatinine Phsphate Reserves Anaerbic Glyclysis Aerbic Respiratin 56

57 Muscle Fatigue Defined as: Occurs when: Oxygen Debt Heat Prductin The bdy respnds by: Rapid muscle cntractins will: FORCE VELOCITY AND DURATION OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION Frce f Muscle Cntractin The strength r frce f muscle cntractin is affected by: The number f muscle fibers cntracting The relative size f the muscle Series-elastic elements Cntracting myfibrils generate: Endmysium, perimysium, epimysium and tendns: When the cntractin ends: Degree f muscle stretch (what is the ptimal perating length?) Length-tensin relatinship ccurs when: 57

58 Velcity and Duratin f Cntractin Influenced by: Lad If lad exceeds muscles maximum tensin: Muscle fiber types Slw Oxidative Fibers Fast Glyclytic Fibers Fast Oxidative Fibers Mst muscles cntain: The percentage f each fiber type is: 58

59 EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON MUSCLE Adaptatins t Exercise Aerbic (endurance) exercise results in the fllwing changes: Disuse Atrphy Results in: Caused by: Micrscpic Structure f Smth Muscle Spindle-shaped fibers: Cnnective tissue: SR: Puchlike infldings called cavelae: Innervatin f Smth Muscle Varicsities (bulbus swellings): SMOOTH MUSCLE Myfilaments in Smth Muscle Rati f thick t thin filaments (1:13) is much lwer than in skeletal muscle (1:2) N trpnin cmplex; prtein calmdulin binds Ca 2+ Myfilaments are spirally arranged, causing smth muscle t cntract in a crkscrew manner 59

60 Cntractin f Smth Muscle Sliding filament mechanism Final trigger is intracellular Ca 2+ Ca 2+ is btained frm the SR and extracellular space Chapter 15-The Special Senses THE EYE The Eye and Visin Accessry Structures f the Eye -Prtect the eye and aid in eye functin Eye brws - Eyelids (palpebrae)- Levatr palpabrae superiris muscle - Tarsal plates - Palpebral fissure - Medial and Lateral Canthi - Caruncle - Cntains: Eyelashes - Tarsal (Meibmian) Glands Prduce: 60

61 Ciliary glands Cnjunctiva Transparent mucus membrane Palpebral cnjunctiva: Bulbar cnjunctiva: Lacrimal Apparatus Cnsists f: Releases: The slutin als cntains: The slutin drains via: Extrinsic Eye Muscles The mvement f the eye is cntrlled by six muscles n the external surface f each eye: Superir rectus: Inferir rectus: Lateral rectus: Medial rectus: Inferir blique: Superir blique: The innervatins t each muscle can be remembered by the fllwing equatin: (LR 6 SO 4 )O 3 Which means: Lateral rectus: Superir blique: All thers: Structure f the Eyeball Wall f eyeball cntains three layers Fibrus layer- Vascular layer- Sensry layer- 61

62 Structures r Substances t Knw: Sclera Crnea Chrid Ciliary bdy, muscle and prcesses Suspensry ligaments Ora Serrata Iris Pupil Anterir segment divided int anterir and psterir chambers Psterir segment Vitreus humr Aqueus humr Lens Macula Lutea Fvea Centralis Optic disc Optic nerve Central artery and vein Canal f Schlemm 62

63 PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION Light and Optics Refractin Light is refracted (bent) as it passes thrugh 3 areas f the Since the lens shape can be changed, it can be used t: Fcusing Light n the Retina Fcusing fr Distant Visin Fcusing fr Clse Visin Light frm a clse bject diverges as it appraches the eye. Three prcesses must ccur t prduce clear visin: Accmmdatin - Cnstrictin f the pupils Cnvergence f the Eyeballs- 63

64 Prblems f Refractin Emmetrpia - Mypia Hyperpia - Phtreceptin and the Retina Structure f the Retina Pigmented Layer- Neural Layer Cmpsed f three layers: Phtreceptrs The rds and cnes are adjacent t: Rds Outer segment Inner segment Cnes Biplar Cells- Ganglin Cells- 64

65 Visual Pigments and Stimulatin f Phtreceptrs Retinal - Tw ismers: Cnversin f 11-cis-retinal t all-trans-retinal: Stimulatin f the Phtreceptrs Excitatin f the rds In the dark: When light is absrbed: all-trans-retinal: Excitatin f the cnes There are 3 types f cnes: Breakdwn and regeneratin f visual pigments: The threshld fr activatin f cnes is: Phtreceptr Imbalances Nyctalpia (night blindness) Caused by: 65

66 Clr Blindness Due t: THE VISUAL PATHWAY TO THE BRAIN Optic Nerve ptic chiasma fibers frm medial regin f each eye crss ver t the ppsite side ptic tracts lateral geniculate bdy f the thalamus ptic radiatins primary visual crtex in the ccipital lbe f the brain cnscius perceptin f the image. The Ear: Hearing and Balance Three parts f the ear The External (uter) ear Pinna THE EAR External auditry (acustic) canal (meatus) Lined with: Tympanic membrane The Middle Ear (tympanic cavity) Three bnes (ssicles)- 66

67 Tw tiny skeletal muscle prevent damage due t large vibratins: Tensr tympani- Stapedius muscle- Pharyngtympanic (auditry) tubes The Inner Ear Cnsists f the bny (sseus) and membranus labyrinth Bny labyrinth - Three regins Vestibule - Cntains tw sacs Saccule- Cchlea Utricle - Semicircular canals Membranus labyrinth EQUILIBRIUM The Maculae and Static Equilibrium Maculae - Each maculae cntains: Otlithic membrane Otliths - 67

68 Steps f Linear Mvement The Crista Ampullaris and Dynamic Equilibrium Dynamic Equilibrium Detected by: Crista Ampullaris Semicircular canals Three canals are lcated in each ear Endlymph Ampulla Crista Ampullaris Cmpsed f: Cupula Steps f Rtatinal Mvement At rest: During rtatinal acceleratin: As mvement slws: Equilibrium Pathway t the Brain Vestibular nerve - Sund and the Cchlea Sund is detected by: Cchlea The cchlea: Cchlear duct SOUNDS AND MECHANISMS OF HEARING Divides cchlea int three chambers: 68

69 Scala vestibuli Scala tympani Scala media (cchlear duct) Oval windw Rund windw Vestibular membrane Basilar membrane Organ f Crti Tectrial membrane Bending f the cilia: Sund Transmissin Transmissin f Sund t the Inner Ear Sund waves enter: Resnance f the Basilar Membrane- Bending cilia twards kincilium: Bending cilia away frm kincilium: Impulses frm the cchlea: Eventually impulses are sent t: 69

70 HEARING IMBALANCES Deafness Hearing lss can be temprary r permanent. Cmmn causes: Middle ear infectins Cnductin Deafness Can be caused by: Nerve Deafness Can be caused by: Tinnitus Meniere s Syndrme 70