Embryology and Anatomy of the Facial Nerve: Correlates of Misdirected Reinnervation and Poor Recovery of Function after Lesions

Transcription

1 Videos Foreword Eugene N. Myers Foreword Johannes J. Manni Preface Dedication and Acknowledgments Contributors xv xvii xviii xix xx xxi Part I: Embryology, Anatomy, Physiology, and Applied Basic Sciences Embryology and Anatomy of the Facial Nerve: Correlates of Misdirected Reinnervation and Poor Recovery of Function after Lesions 2 Doychin N. Angelov 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Neural Plate, Neural Crest, Ectodermal Placodes Neural Folds, Neural Tube, Rhombomeres, Roof and Floor Plates First Differentiation into Motor and Sensory Cells Development of Facial Nerve Branches 6 Development of Intratemporal Communications 7 Development of Extratemporal Communications Relationships to Developing Facial Muscles Primordial Tissues of the Facial Nerve Occur at the End of the 3rd Week The Second Pharyngeal Arch Development of the Intraparenchymal Portion of the Facial Nerve Development of the Extramedullar Portion of the Facial Nerve Development of the Pars Intratemporalis Axonal Growth and Guidance 8 Postnatal Development 8 Intracranial Portion of the Facial Nerve 9 Surgical Anatomy of the Facial Nerve Trunk and its Branches Key Points 12 Physiology of the Facial Motor System 14 Andrey Irintchev 2.1 Introduction Muscles Motoneurons and Glial Cells 15 Proprioception 17 Reflex Responses and Automatic Motor Behaviors 18

2 2.6 Central Pattern Generators Voluntary Motor Control Emotional Motor Control Key Points Applied Bask Science: Improvement c Andrey Irintchev and Doychin N. Angelov 3.1 Introduction Clinical Relevance of Animal Models Factors Limiting Recovery Therapeutic Approaches Targeting Axonal Misdirection Electrical Stimulation to Counteract Denervation Atrophy and Accelerate Reinnervation 27 yierve Regeneration Manual Stimulation Reduces Polyinnervation of Muscle Fibers Growth Factors to Promote Axonal Growth Mimetic Peptides Improve Diameters and Myelination of Regenerated Axons Cell-Based Approaches for Axonal Growth Enhancement across a Nerve Prosthesis Key Points 28 Part II: Diagnostics 4. Clinical Examination 32 Cerd Fabian VoIk, Orlando Cuntinas-Lichius, and Barry M. Schaitkin 4.1 Introduction Patient History Time Course Recurrence Recurrent Alternating Palsy Bilateral Simultaneous Palsy Conditions Associated with Facial Nerve Palsy Family History and Congenital Facial Palsy Pregnancy Systemic Illnesses Drugs Immunizations Malignancies Idiopathic (Bell's) Palsy Clinical Examination Facial Muscle Weakness and Facial Palsy Gross Neurological Examination Cranial Nerve Survey Corneal Sensation Keratitis Palate Symmetry Tongue Deviation Loss of Taste and Taste Papillae Signs of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Pain or Numbness Vesicles Ear Dizziness Topodiagnostics Stapedial Reflex (Acoustic Reflex) Other Hearing Tests and Balance Tests Schirmer's Test Taste Test Extended Diagnostics Imaging Electrodiagnostics Psychological Exploration Follow-up Key Points Imaging 57 Cerd Fabian Volk, Hartmut Peter Burmeister, and Orlando Cuntinas-Lichius 5.1 Introduction Indications for Imaging Studies 57 vi

3 5.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Computed Tomography Ultrasonography 64 Key Points Electrophysiology Hans-Christoph Scholle, Nikolaus-Peter Schumann, and Gerd Fabian Volk Introduction Definition Physiology behind Electrophysiologic Diagnostics Pathology and its Electrophysiologic Correlates Supranuclear Lesions Infranuclear Lesions Synaptic Lesions Muscular Lesions Electrophysiologic Diagnostic Work-Up Needle Electromyography Electroneurography Blink Reflex Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Magnetic Evoked Potentials Surface Electromyography Key Points Grading Orlando Cuntinas-Lichius and Mira Finkensieper 7.1 Introduction Definition Subjective Grading House-Brackmann Facial Grading System Yanagihara's Facial Grading Scale Stennert's Index May Facial Nerve Grading Scale Sunnybrook (Toronto) Facial Grading System Facial Nerve Grading System Objective Grading Systems Burres-Fisch Linear Measurement Index and the Nottingham System Neely's Facial Analysis Computerized Evaluation system Facial Landmark-Based Computer Systems and Programs Three-Dimensional Video Analysis and Surface Analysis Glasgow Facial Palsy Scale Facial Assessment by Computer Evaluation Facial Action Coding System Assessment of Nonmimic Motor Function and Nonmotor Facial Nerve Functions 105 Assessment of the Communicative and Emotional Function 105 Facial Disability Index 106 Facial Clinimetric Evaluation Scale Instrument 106 Assessment of Psychological Distress, Anxiety, and Depression Key Points 107 Part III: Management of Acute Peripheral Facial Palsy 8. Bell's Palsy 112 Eric Smouha and Elizabeth Toh Clinical Features Diagnostic Work-Up Treatment 118

4 8.6.1 Eye Care Outcomes and Prognosis Medical Treatment of Bell's Palsy Surgical Decompression 120 Key Points Medical Treatment of Bell's Palsy Facial Nerve Trauma 124 Peter L. Santa Maria, Mira Finkensieper, Orlando Guntinas-Lichius, and Robert K. Jackler 9.1 Introduction Definition Epidemiology and Etiology Clinical Features Intracranial Trauma lntratemporal Trauma Extratemporal Trauma Diagnostic Work-Up Examination Electrophysiology Imaging Facial Nerve and Facial Muscle Biopsies Treatment Nonsurgical Treatment Surgical Treatment Outcome and Prognosis Key Points Ramsay Hunt Syndrome Claus Wittekindt 10.1 Introduction Definition Epidemiology and Etiology Clinical Features Diagnostic Work-Up Virology Testing Imaging Studies Electrodiagnostic Tests of Facial Nerve Lumbar Puncture Treatment Medical Treatment Treatment for Disequilibrium Treatment for Facial Paralysis Treatment for Pain Treatment for Postherpetic Neuralgia Topical Antiviral Cream Treatment for the Eye Surgical Treatment Outcome and Prognosis Complications Prevention Key Points Lyme Disease Howard S. Moskowitz and Barry M. Schaitkin 11.1 Introduction Definition Epidemiology and Etiology Clinical Features Diagnostic Work-Up Outcomes and Prognosis Lyme Facial Palsy versus Bell's Palsy Studies on Lyme Facial Palsy Studies on Lyme Facial Palsy Focusing on Children Overview of Lyme Facial Palsy Studies Key Points Treatment 159 viii

5 12. Pediatric Facial Nerve Palsies Kristen M. Davidge, J. Michael Hendry, Ronald Zuker, and Gregory H. Borschel Introduction 167 Definition 167 Epidemiology Etiology Mobius Syndrome Hemifacial Microsomia and Goldenhar's Syndrome Hereditary Congenital Facial Nerve Paralysis History Physical Examination Investigations Treatment Addressing the Lower Face Neonatal Asymmetric Crying Fades Acquired Facial Paralysis in the Pediatric Population Key Points Diagnostic Work-Up 171 Part IV: Importance of the Facial Nerve for Communication and Emotion 13. Psychological Exploration of Emotional, Communicative, and Social Impairments in Patients with Facial Impairments 184 Christian Dobel and Orlando Guntinas-Lichius 13.1 Introduction Psychological Changes After Facial 13.2 Emotions as a Core of Human Palsy 187 Interactions Key Points Understanding Own and Others' Emotions Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches to Emotional and Social Impairments in Patients with Facial Paresis 192 Christian Dobel and Orlando Guntinas-Lichius 14.1 Introduction Guidance for Clinicians Diagnosis of Emotional and Social Symptoms Assessment of General Anxiety, Social Assessment of Quality of Life and Social 14.3 Assessment of Emotional Functions Therapeutic Approaches to Address 192 Emotional and Social Changes Key Points Part V: Surgery around the Facial Nerve 15. Intraoperative Facial Nerve Monitoring 200 Brent ]. Benscoter and Jack M. Kartush 15.1 Introduction History. 200 ix

6 15.3 Clinical Application Physiology Training Technical Setup Troubleshooting/Pitfalls Further Study Key Points Tumors Affecting the Facial Nerve John P. Leonetti, Sam J. Marzo, and Matthew L Kircher 16.1 Introduction Surgical Anatomy Clinical Features Presenting Symptoms Presenting Signs Diagnostic Work-Up Surgical Approaches Facial Nerve Management Primary Neurorrhaphy Interposition Graft Hypoglossal-Facial Anastomosis Microvascular Free Flap Cross-Facial Graft Facial Schwannoma Adjuvant Procedures Key Points The Facial Nerve in Otologic Infection and Iatrogenic Injury Jacob S. McAfee and Barry E. Hirsch introduction Structural Considerations Acute Otitis Media Pathophysiology Electrophysiologic Diagnostics Treatment Prognosis Chronic Otitis Media Pathophysiology Treatment Necrotizing Otitis Externa Pathophysiology Diagnostic Work-Up Treatment Perioperative Management of Acute Facial Palsy during Middle Ear and Mastoid Surgery Immediate, Complete Paralysis Delayed-Onset, Incomplete Palsy Key Points Facial Nerve and Vestibular Schwannoma John C. Coddard, Courtney C. J. Voelker, and Derald E. Brackmann Introduction General Considerations in Vestibular Schwannoma Surgery Indications and Patient Selection Patient Information and Consent: Surgical Patient Information and Consent: Stereotactic Radiation Stereotactic Radiation Patient Selection Treatment Steps Microsurgery Retrosigmoid Approach Middle Fossa Approach Translabryinthine Approach Postoperative Considerations Complications Measures for Specific Complications Key Points 248 x

7 19. The Facial Nerve and Parotid Surgery Orlando Guntinas-Lichius and Mira Finkensieper 19.1 Introduction Definition Epidemiology and Etiology Risk Factors for Postoperative Facial Palsy After Parotid Surgery Preoperative Assessment and Measures to Avoid Postoperative Facial Palsy Intraoperative Measures to Prevent a Facial Nerve Lesion Identification of the Extratemporai Portion of the Facial Nerve and its End Branches Management of the Facial Nerve Depending on the Type of Surgery Management of Intraoperative Facial Nerve Lesions Management of Postoperative Facial Palsy A Facial Nerve Lesion Occurs During Parotid Surgery and is Recognized The Patient Wakes Up After Parotid Surgery and has a Complete Facial Palsy on the Side of Surgery The Patient Wakes Up After Parotid Surgery and has an Incomplete Facial Palsy The Patient Develops a Delayed Facial Palsy Key Points 260 Part VI: Rehabilitation Techniques for Chronic Facial Palsy 20. Facial Nerve Reconstruction Orlando Guntinas-Lichius and Mira Finkensieper Introduction Definition Direct Facial-Facial Nerve Reconstruction Indications Patient Information, Consent Anesthesia and Positioning Surgical Steps Complications Postoperative Care Outcomes Facial-Facial Nerve Interposition Craft Indications Patient Information, Consent Anesthesia and Positioning Surgical Steps Complications Postoperative Care Outcomes 271 Hypoglossal-Facial Nerve Suture and Hypoglossal-Facial Jump Nerve Suture Indications Patient Information, Consent Anesthesia and Positioning Surgical Steps Complications Postoperative Care Outcomes Cross-Face Facial Nerve Suture Indications Patient Information, Consent Anesthesia and Positioning Surgical Steps Complications Postoperative Care Outcomes Other Cross-Nerve Sutures Combined Approach Key Points 280 xi

8 21. Muscle Flaps and Static Procedures... Markus Jungehulsing and Orlando Cuntinas-Lichius 21.1 Introduction Definition Temporalis Muscle Transfer Indications Patient Information, Consent Anesthesia and Positioning Surgical Steps Complications Postoperative Care Outcomes Masseter Muscle Transfer Indications Patient Information, Consent Anesthesia and Positioning Surgical Steps Complications Postoperative Care Outcomes Digastric Muscle Transfer Indications Patient Information, Consent Anesthesia and Positioning Surgical Steps Complications Postoperative Care Outcomes Sling Techniques Indications Patient Information, Consent Anesthesia and Positioning Surgical Steps Complications Postoperative Care Outcomes Combining Procedures Key Points Free Flaps Caroline A. Banks and Tessa A. Hadlock 22.1 Introduction Two-Stage Procedures One-Stage Procedures Indications Gracilis Free Muscle Transfer in Special Populations Patient Information and Consent Anesthesia and Positioning First-Stage Cross-Face Preparation of the Face and Neck for Free Flap Gracilis Harvest Gracilis Preparation and Inset Complications Postoperative Care Key Points Surgical Steps Functional Outcomes of Facial Nerve Repair following Face Transplantation 306 Maria Z. Siemionow and Bahar Bassiri Gharb 23.1 Introduction Current Clinical Experience with c. A U * c IM Facial Nerve R ep air in Face 23.2 Surgical Approach to Facial Nerve Transplantation 311 Repair in Face Transplantation 307 _, Functional Outcomes of Facial Nerve 23.3 Rehabilitation Following Facial Nerve Repair In Face Transplantation 311 Repair in Face Transplantation Key Points 311

9 24. Surgery of the Periorbital Region Kris S. Moe and Farhad Ardeshirpour 24.1 Introduction Forehead and Brow Browlift Eyelids Upper Lid Correction of Lower Lid Malposition Midface Lift Adjuvant Measures Botulinum Toxin Fillers and Fat Key Points Adjuvant Treatment with Botulinum Toxin and Fillers Claus Wittekindt Introduction Mechanism of Action and Recovery of Hyperlacrimation 333 Gustatory Sweating (Frey's Syndrome). 334 Facial Asymmetry 335 Fillers 337 Types of Fillers 337 Complications 338 Choosing the Right Filler 338 Injection Technique 338 Key Points Feedback Training and Other Training Programs Wolfgang H. R. Miltner, Thomas Weiss, and Eva Maria Miltner Introduction Neuromuscular Biofeedback Training 342 Technique 342 Efficacy Rehabilitation of Facial Paralysis following Different Treatment Concepts of Physical Therapy without Concurrent Biofeedback Methods Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Mime Therapy Mixed Home Training Neuromuscular Re-Education Versus Conventional Therapeutic Measures General Status of Current Rehabilitation Outcome Methodological Problems Assessment of Motor Dysfunction Evaluation of Stability of Treatment Effects Beyond the Termination of Rehabilitation Sequencing of Treatment Components, Manualization Intensity of Daily Training and Total Duration of Training Key Points 354 xiii

10 Part VII: Diseases Other Than Peripheral Facial Palsy 27. Central Facial Palsy Carsten M. Klingner and Otto W. Witte 27.1 Introduction Definition Epidemiology and Etiology Causes of a Central Facial Palsy Anatomy of the Central Facial Pathway Voluntary Facial Movements Emotional Facial Movements The Facial Nucleus Clinical Features Diagnostic Work-Up Medical Interview Imaging Electrophysiology Treatment Key Points Facial Dystonia and Facial Spasms Claus Wittekindt 28.1 Introduction Definition Dystonia Classification Blepharospasm Epidemiology and Etiology Clinical Features Diagnostic Work-Up Treatment Outcome and Prognosis Meige's Syndrome Otomandibular Dystonia Hemifacial Spasm Epidemiology and Etiology Clinical Features Diagnostic Work-Up Treatment Outcome and Prognosis Key Points Other Dystonias Affecting the Face. 373 Part VIII: Miscellaneous 29. Medicolegal Aspects of Iatrogenic Facial Nerve Palsy Eric L Slattery and Jack M. Kartush Introduction Epidemiology of iatrogenic Facial Nerve Injury Oral Surgery Head and Neck Surgery Otologic Surgery Neurotologic Surgery Plastic Surgery Avoiding Error in Surgery near the Facial Nerve Intraoperative Monitoring Management of Facial Nerve injury Initial Assessment Surgical Exploration and Repair Key Points Malpractice Claims, Litigation, and Facial Nerve Injury 382 Index 393