PYC2601 PERSONALITY THEORIES

Transcription

1 PYC2601 PERSONALITY THEORIES

2 CONTENTS chapter 1: personology and historical overview of psychological thinking... 3 background... 3 Persononology and everyday knowledge of human nature... 3 The reasons why there are so many personality theories... 3 Definitions of key concepts... 4 A variety of opinions about personality... 4 The genesis of psychology... 5 Psychology as a science in its own right... 6 Psychology in the twentieth century... 8 Chapter 2: the psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud... 9 The basic assumptions underlying Freud s theory... 9 The structure of the personality The dynamics of the personality The development of the personality Optimal development Views on psychopathology Implications and applications Chapter 3: the social cognitive learning approach Background The view of the person underlying the theory The structure of the personality The dynamics of the personality The development of personality Optimal development Views on psychopathology Implication and applications Evaluation of the theory Introduction to person-oriented approaches Background Historical background Chapter 4: the self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow Concepts Background

3 The view of the person underlying the theory The structure and dynamics of the personality The development of the personality Optimal development Views on psychopathology Implications and applications Evaluation of the theory Chapter 5: the self concept theory of Carl Rogers Background The view of the person underlying the theory The structure of the personality The dynamics of the personality The development of the personality Optimal functioning Views on psychopathology Implications and applications Evaluation of the theory Chapter 6: the existential theory of Viktor Frankl Background The view of the person underlying the theory The structure of the personality The dynamics of the personality The development of the personality Optimal development Views on psychopathology Implications and applications Evaluation of the theory Chapter 7: African perspectives Introduction and background View of the person and the worldview underlying the perspective Cognitive functioning and the concept of time Optimal development and mental health Views on psychopathology Psychotherapy

4 PART 1: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1: PERSONOLOGY AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THINKING BACKGROUND Why study personology? It allows us to re-examine our thinking about human functioning, and leads to a better understanding of human functioning. PERSONONOLOGY AND EVERYDAY KNOWLEDGE OF HUMAN NATURE Everyday knowledge of human nature involves the ability to judge, understand, explain and predict behaviour of one s fellow human beings. Our ability to judge people depends mainly on four sources of information (none of which are completely reliable, since they are coloured by subjective judgement and bias): Cultural tradition (Novels, dramas, songs, expressions and idioms. Includes stereotypes and ideas about the characteristics of certain types of people. Includes astrology.) Direct communications from others Observations of others behaviour Self-observation Personology: the branch of psychology which focuses on the study of the individual s characteristics and of differences between people; the formal scientific counterpart of our informal knowledge of human nature; provides different possible explanations of human behaviour. Personality theory: the outcome of a purposeful, sustained effort to develop a logically consistent conceptual system for describing, explaining and/or predicting human behaviour. The nature and purpose of personality theories: An underlying view of the person Proposals about the structure of personality and about how this structure functions Ideas about what motivates human behaviour A description of human development and propositions about ideal human development Reflections on the nature and causes of behavioural problems or psychopathology An explanation of how human behaviour might be controlled and possibly changed Ideas about how to study, measure and predict behaviour. THE REASONS WHY THERE ARE SO MANY PERSONALITY THEORIES The complexity of humans and their behaviour Factors that have an influence on behaviour: Biological factors (nervous system, hormones) 3

5 The food you eat Environmental circumstances (weather) Environmental stimuli (things other people say) Social factors (other people s expectations) The overall social milieu and culture in which one lives Psychological and spiritual factors such as one s emotions, motivation, habits, attitudes, opinions, religious convictions, values and goals. Each personality theory represents one possible explanation of human functioning as seen through the eyes of a particular personologist/theorist it cannot provide the whole truth, but it contributes to a better understanding of human functioning. Practical and ethical problems in research Is complete knowledge of the person possible and desirable? Determinism: the view that people s behaviour is really determined by forces beyond their control. Freedom: humanists and existentialists believe that people s behaviour is determined by their own free will. Freud was a psychic determinist (behaviour is determined by factors within your personality) Skinner was an environmental determinist (behaviour is determined by environmental factors) The large variety of assumptions concerning the person and scientific research DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS Person: an individual human being who can act independently. A person leads a physical, psychological and spiritual existence. According to this approach, the following assumption apply: People lead a physical existence - they are living organisms with bodies that have certain characteristics and needs and which are the instruments by means of which they operate. People lead a psychological existence they have certain (conscious) needs and other characteristics that are not merely physical. People lead a spiritual existence they assess their own attributes and have values and future goals, which they take into consideration when making judgements and decisions. Personality: the constantly changing but nevertheless relatively stable organisation of all physical, psychological and spiritual characteristics of the individual which determine his/her behaviour in interaction within the context in which the individual finds himself/herself. Character: refers to those aspects of the personality involving the person s values, and his/her ability to behave consistently in congruence with his/her values. It refers to the spiritual and moral dimensions of the person. Temperament and nature: the inherited, biological aspects of the person (their emotions, and how they express and deal with them). Self: people s view of themselves; synonym for personality; refers to many other aspects of personality as well. A VARIETY OF OPINIONS ABOUT PERSONALITY Personality, situation and behaviour: Personism: Behaviour is influenced chiefly by the individual s personality. Individuals have fixed characteristics or behavioural tendencies that distinguish them from each other. If 4

6 someone has more of a particular characteristic than another person, the difference will be apparent in all situations. Freud: believed in psychic determinism. All behaviour are caused by unconscious drives. Psychometric testing is tacitly based on the views of unspoken personism. Situationalism: All people in the same situation would behave the same way. The situation is the only or most important determinant of behaviour. Environmental determinism: All people are equal, and the individual s specific attributes are shaped by the environment. Proponents: John Watson (the father of behaviourism) and Skinner. Interactionalism: Behaviour is the outcome of the interaction between the individual s characteristics and the situation in which the behaviour occurs. Human behaviour is the product of the physical, social and cultural environment. Transactionalism: the person reacts not only to the situation, but also to the behaviour which he himself produces in the situation. Interactionalism also appears as systems theory, the ecosystemic approach and the ecological approach. Personality theories: a systemic overview Depth psychological approaches: behaviour is determined by forces within the person of which he/she is mostly unaware. Modern proponents see the individual as being totally embedded in the cultural context. Behavioural and learning theoretical approaches: Emphasis is on the study of observable behaviour. Learning and environmental influences are the most important determinants of behaviour. Extreme behaviourists: (Skinner) all behaviour and learning can be explained without any reference to needs or conscious experiences. Social cognitive learning theory: (Bandura) learning can take place through the imitation of others. The individual s cognitions play an important part in the learning process. Person-oriented approaches: try to include and explain all aspects of the person in their theories. Existentialists: people direct their own lives through the ideals that they set for themselves. Rogers: people naturally strive for the fullest development of their inherited potential. Kelly: emphasises the efforts humans make to predict events in their environment. Alternative perspectives: Ecosystemic approach: individuals can only be understood as parts of the complex totality of more encompassing systems in which they are embedded. Eastern and African perspectives: views of human functioning are embedded in religious and other cultural traditions. THE GENESIS OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychological theories can be traced to the classical Greek philosophers. It was first recognised as a laboratory science at the University of Leipzig in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory there. Psychology as part of philosophy (400 BC 1600): 5

7 Can be traced back to Plato ( BC) and Aristotle ( BC), who laid down the basic principles of human behaviour, particularly with regard to the structure and functions of the soul or mind (psyche). According to Plato, the soul and the body are two separate entities and the evil body interferes with the functioning of the good soul. The soul consists of 3 elements: the rational, the spiritual, and the yearning aspect, which function independently of the body. Aristotle (a student of Plato) proposed the idea of a unity of body and soul. The soul is a manifestation of the body, just as a piece of furniture is a manifestation of wood. St Augustine ( ) and Thomas Aquinas ( ) tried to reconcile Plato s psychology with Christian doctrines. During this phase, psychology was part of religious thinking, and thus of philosophy. Psychology as part of philosophy and of the natural sciences ( ): Age of Reason knowledge ceased to be linked with religion and faith. The human being is the focal point. Two currents of epistemology came into being during the 16 th and 17 th centuries: Empiricism and Rationalism. Empiricism: an approach to the philosophy of science that starts with the assumption that the only source of true knowledge is observation through sensory perception. Francis Bacon ( ) pointed out that knowledge had, to date, been gathered exclusively by means of the deductive method, which limits scientific endeavour. He believed that truly valid knowledge was attained chiefly through the inductive method. Bacon emphasised empirical observation (a systematic inductive method) as the starting point for any scientific investigation. Bacon started with the external world and maintained that knowledge of it is acquired by means of controlled observation. Rationalism: proposes that human reason is the only source of true knowledge. René Descartes ( ) started with the objective world. Subjective experience and conscious knowledge of oneself are the basis of all knowledge (I think, therefore I am). The existence of the external world cannot be proved. The existence of everything was open to doubt. Two levels of existence in the universe: Physical world: observable matter which can be explained and investigated in terms of mechanistic laws and which led to the development of the natural sciences Mental world: non-material, non-observable processes of consciousness that are characterised, in particular, by the human faculty of reasoning and which led to the development of the human sciences (Geisteswissenschaften). The mind is the non-material, non-physical entity which, Descartes says, is easier to investigate than the body because it can become known through self-reflection. The body is a physical, material entity common to both humans and animals, which responds to the external world according to mechanistic physiological principles. Descartes was the first modern thinker to demarcate and describe the object of psychology as the study of human mental processes. PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE IN ITS OWN RIGHT 6

8 Wundt s work brought about the formal establishment of the science of psychology. The origin of psychology can be traced back conceptually to 2 fundamental starting points: The traditional foundation provided by Wundt and structuralism within a strong academic context The foundation laid by Freud and psychoanalysis within a practical medical context. Wundt and the foundation within the academic context: At the end of the previous century in, natural sciences flourished in Germany. Two psychological paradigms were developed: psychology as a natural science and psychology as a human science. Psychology as a natural science This paradigm arises from the work of Wilhelm Wundt. Structuralism: a scientific philosophical approach that aims to examine the constituent structural elements of phenomena in this case, processes of consciousness. Structuralists define psychology as the analytical examination of human consciousness. Introspection: an experimental method of investigation specific to psychology developed by Wundt. It involves self-observation under controlled conditions. Experimental introspection: Experimentelle Selbstbeobachtung. Subjective inner observation: Innere Wahrnehmung. Purpose of introspection was to construct a chemistry of consciousness. Wundt s work led to the development of functionalism (which concentrates on the functions and dynamics of psychological processes rather than on the study of nonobservable structural elements) in America. This view eventually culminated in behaviourism. Structuralism also stimulated the development of the German psychology of thinking and of Gestalt psychology. Psychology as a human science Franz Brentano ( ) believed that psychology should be defined as the study of psychological processes which originate with the human will (intentionality). Brentano (founder of the phenomenological approach in psychology) adapted the descriptive qualitative method to the study of psychological phenomena. Brentano influenced the development of the Gestalt movement and the Third Force (person-oriented approach in America and existentialist approach in Europe reflects a human science orientation). Freud and the foundation within a practical medical context: Freud: medical doctor; interested in psychopathological manifestations; founder of the theory of human behaviour known as the psychoanalytical theory. Freud s theory is founded on his own subjective observation of the behaviour of his patients. The impact of Freud s work on the development of psychology as a discipline: The scope of the discipline was broadened. To the study of the processes of consciousness was added the examination of unconscious processes and phenomena. Freud s work with neurotic patients resulted in psychopathology being gradually established as a sphere of interest for psychology. Ultimately this led to the development of clinical psychology as a field of specialisation within psychology. Freud s views of human behaviour represent the first formal theory of the structure, dynamics and development of the personality. Freud may thus be regarded as the founder of personality psychology and, to some extent, of developmental psychology. Freud s psychodynamic approach influenced Western thinking in general. 7

9 PSYCHOLOGY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Four aspects of human existence: The human being as an individual (individual existence) The individual in relation to other people (social existence) The individual in relation to his/her physical environment (physical existence) The individual in relation to a transcendent environment (transcendental existence). The human being as an individual (individual existence): Initially in all the approaches the emphasis was on the study of individual behaviour (individual existence). John Watson (orthodox behaviourism), Burrhus Skinner (radical behaviourism), Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka (Gestalt psychology), Freud and Carl Jung (orthodox psychoanalysis) all concentrated on the behaviour of the individual. Orthodox behaviourism: the variables that determine behaviour are located extra-psychically in the environment and in what can be consciously and externally observed. Orthodox psychoanalysis: the variables that determine behaviour are located intrapsychically and in the individual s unconscious. This phase generated many new insights into general psychological processes, such as the behaviourists investigations of the learning process, the Gestalt school s work on perception and that of the psychoanalysts on motivation. The development of cognitive psychology as an independent field of specialisation (1960) was a direct expansion of rationalism and structuralism. The view of the person as cognizer has given further impetus to the man-as-machine paradigm and the parallel definition of the human as an information processing organism. It has given rise to the concept of artificial intelligence. Cognitive restructuring (the idea that changing an individual s cognitive contents will lead to a change in behaviour) has become the foundation of many modern psychotherapeutic approaches. The individual in relation to other people (social existence) During this time sociology and anthropology were established as subjects and Marxism was flourishing, in contrast with Darwin s theory of evolution that had held sway in science in the previous decades. The person was thought of as a social rather than just a biological entity. Social psychology became established as a discipline. Socially-oriented theories were established (with an emphasis on the person s social existence), including: the social learning theory (Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel) within the behaviourist tradition; the humanistic, person oriented theories (Gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers); the existentialist views (Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, Victor Frankl) the socially-oriented psycho-analytical theories (Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, Harry Stack Sullivan) The interpersonal model: acknowledges the social environment as a variable that influences human functioning. This theme is particularly evident in social learning theory, socially-oriented psychoanalytic theory and humanistic, person-oriented and existentialist theories. 8

10 The interactional and transactional models are refinement of the reciprocal nature of the interaction between the individual and the social environment. Interactional model: the person and the social environment are independent variables that exert reciprocal influence on one another. Transactional model: person and environment are interdependent variables that cannot be defined separately from the transaction. The individual in relation to the physical environment Now the individual s physical environment is also taken into consideration. This led to the foundation of environmental psychology as a sub-discipline of psychology. The ecosystemic model is an extension of the transactional model. It goes even further in differentiating the environmental variable in order to provide for a complex network of interactional patterns that bring the person, the social environment and the physical environment into play as interdependent variables in explaining and describing behaviour. The individual in relation to a transcendent environment A consequence of this development is the growth of the psychology of religion. Although the person-oriented theories which formed part of the human science paradigm made allowance for a transcendental relationship, it was only Victor Frankl, preceded by William James, Carl Jung, Abraham Maslow and Gordon Allport, whose theories identified religion as an integral part of a person s overall psychic functioning. Freud regarded religion as a neurotic manifestation. PART 2: DEPTH PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES CHAPTER 2: THE PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY OF SIGMUND FREUD Freud s view is that the individual is caught in an ongoing conflict between unacceptable drives and the rules and regulations of society. In Freud s time, the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt and the functionalism of William James (both focusing on conscious processes) dominated psychological thought. Structuralists: studied the structures, the content of the components or parts of consciousness. Functionalists: studied the functions of conscious mental processes. Freud is called the father of depth psychology because he shifted the focus from conscious mental processes to the deeper, unconscious, unobservable layers of consciousness. THE BASIC ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING FREUD S THEORY The assumption of psychosocial conflict The person is caught up in a constant conflict between (sexual and aggressive) drives within the psyche and the demands and norms of society. The person constantly tries to experience as much drive satisfaction and as few guilt feelings as possible. 9

11 The assumption of biological and psychic determinism Human drives are physiologically based and rooted within the body, and are located within the id. Societal rules are gradually absorbed into the superego. The id and superego are parts of the psyche, therefore the conflict that essentially motivates behaviour takes place in the psyche. The mechanistic assumption Freud believed that humans function in a mechanistic way (like a steam engine, for example). THE STRUCTURE OF THE PERSONALITY The levels of consciousness The id The ego The conscious level: contains thoughts, feelings and experiences of which the person is aware. Dynamic (changeable). Preconscious level: contains information which can be recalled to consciousness without much effort (mainly memories of earlier occurrences that are not painful or anxiety-provoking, and experiences and observations on which the individual is not concentrating at any particular moment). The unconscious level: contains forbidden drives, and the memories of events and wishes which cause the person pain, anxiety and guild and which he cannot recall to the conscious mind. Latin for it The innate, primitive component of the psyche Linked to the drives, namely the life drives/eros (incl. sex drive) and the death drive/thanatos, which are contained in the id. Functions according to the primary processes (being incapable of any thought, self-reflection or planning) and the pleasure principle. The id can only gain satisfaction through wish fulfilment (creating images of the desired objects and fantasising that they had appeased the drive). The ego develops from the id in order to ensure the person s survival. It is formed through interaction with the world. Serves the id s needs by finding objects for real drive satisfaction. It functions according to the secondary process and the reality principle. Secondary process: the ego evaluates and weighs up a situation before acting. It reflects upon and plans for drive satisfaction. It postpones satisfaction to an appropriate time and situation (secondary process). The id insists upon immediate satisfaction (primary process). Reality principle: the ego takes physical and social reality into account by using conscious and preconscious cognitive processes such as sensory perception, rational thinking, memory and learning. The id uses fantasy and wish fulfilment to fulfil drives, but the ego uses reality testing, object choice and object cathexis (the ego tries to establish on rational grounds whether or not an object is serviceable). Cathexis: the person places psychic energy upon objects that are attractive to him/her. Not only does the ego experience constant pressure from the id, it also has to accommodate all the demands of the physical environment and the moral codes of society. 10

12 The superego The id threatens the ego with tension and discomfort if drives are not satisfied, and the superego threatens the ego with punishment and guilt. The ego functions on all three levels of consciousness. The ego uses energy derived from the id (from the ego drives). The superego develops from the ego. The superego functions according to the moral principle (it punishes the individual by making him feel guilty about immoral wishes and behaviour, and holds up a relentless, perfectionistic ideal of moral behaviour). Conscience: the punishing element of the superego. Ego-ideal: the positive dimension which encourages moral behaviour. The superego obtains energy from the aggressive drive (death drive/thanatos). Anticathexis: the moral taboo placed on an object by the superego. THE DYNAMICS OF THE PERSONALITY Motivation: Freud s drive theory Freud believes that the human psyche functions with the help of energy which is converted from a physical-biological form to psychic energy according to the principle of energy transformation. The drives that reside in the id, and the internalised moral code in the superego, both possess transformed energy. Internalisation: the process by which people make things such as attitudes, values and beliefs of others a part of their own personality so that they can cope with things better in future. This energy either urges the individual to act (to satisfy sexual desires) or tortures the person with guilt feelings. Thus the individual has to cope with a conflict between 2 forms of energy: drive energy in the form of (forbidden) wishes versus moral energy in the form of guilt feelings. The energy attached to wishes and guilt feelings does not disappear of its own accord. Drives, as psychological representations of energy derived from the body, are the main driving forces in human functioning which not only motivate and propel the person to function, but also determine the direction of behaviour. General characteristics of drives: Source: every drive has its source in the body, but the various drives obtain energy from different parts of the body. (Hunger drive organs involved in eating; sex drive genitals and sex glands). Impetus or energy: every drive has impetus (a certain quantity of energy or intensity), which is affected by the condition of the energy source, and by the lapse of time since the last satisfaction of the drive. Goal: experienced subjectively as desires to accomplish something specific, and the pressure of such a desire remains operative until the drive is satisfied. Many drives are experienced subconsciously. Object: some thing or person suitable for the satisfaction of the drive. Satisfaction is achieved by using the energy of the drive with the help of an appropriate object to carry out suitable actions. Additional information: 11

13 Types of drives Cathexis: the process of mental or emotional energy into a person, object, or idea. Displacement: a process of substitution which occurs when an earlier object choice is no longer available, or when society (and consequently, the superego) prohibits the use of a specific object. It is important to note that the initial cathexis tends to endure. Freud reduces all drives to the 2 basic inclinations of living organisms: to develop constructively (life drives eros) and to disintegrate and die (death drives thanatos). Life drives are further divided into two types: ego drives (which ensure the survival of the individual) and sexual drives (which ensure the survival of the species). The ego drives: Survival eating, drinking, and breathing. Responsible for the development of the ego and provides energy for its functioning. Ego drives are clearly distinguished from the sexual drives in that: they are related to the survival of the individual (sexual drives survival of species); they are not associated with moral prescriptions and guilt feelings; they provide energy for the functioning of the ego. The sexual drives: Main concern: survival of the species Primary function is erotic in the sense that the satisfaction of sexual drives provides erotic pleasure, while the non-satisfaction thereof causes discomfort. Sexual drives are present at birth, but start functioning in service of reproduction and survival of the species after puberty. The bodily source of the baby s sexual drives is the mouth area. The original object of the oral sexual drive is the mother s breast. As the child develops, other sexual drives emerge as other bodily parts become sources of sexual energy. The sexual drives create ongoing psychological problems and mental illnesses when unfulfilled. The death drive: Function: break down living cells and change them into dead matter. Object: the body. Death drive is in conflict with the life drives, and this conflict is displayed outwardly as aggression and destructive behaviour towards people or objects. First externalised form of aggression occurs in the first year of life (oral aggression) when a baby bites the mother during feeding. The individual has to find ways to use the death drive energy, which cannot disappear of its own accord. Death drive is an important part of the normal development of the individual and of the causation of psychopathology. Freud ascribes all violence, aggression and destructive behaviour of any kind to the death drive. Through the defence mechanism of sublimation, the energy may be exercised in socially acceptable ways (destroying objects literally or symbolically butchers, critics, etc.). 12

14 Anxiety The superego uses aggressive drive energy by making the person feel guilty about his/her undesirable wishes and actions and causing pain through reproach. Self-inflicted harm (such as performance errors, accident proneness and suicide) are the outcome of the unconscious operation of the death drive through the superego. Ultimately the death drive reverts to its original object you cause your own death. Nirvana: a totally tensionless state, achieved in death. The unconscious ideal of all life. Anxiety is the ego s reaction to danger, and it stems from the conflict between the id s forbidden drives and the superego s moral codes. Anxiety motivates the ego to avoid the danger, thereby reducing the anxiety. Three types of anxiety: reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and moral anxiety. Reality anxiety (fear): Anxiety about actual dangers in the external environment. There is a possibility that the cause of the fear may be addressed. Neurotic anxiety: threat comes from inside. Difficult or impossible to deal with. Plays a role in psychological disturbances, but also in the life of normal human beings. People use defence mechanisms to deal with their anxiety, and they have dreams in which their forbidden desires are fulfilled. The ego feels threatened by the conflict between the contents of the id and the moral codes of the superego and is not aware of what is causing the feeling of anxiety. The ego fears that a forbidden drive, which has been unconscious up to that point in time, will appear in the conscious mind or that a drive will become uncontrollable, which would lead to punishment and feelings of guilt. Moral anxiety: threat comes from inside. Difficult or impossible to deal with. Plays a role in psychological disturbances, but also in the life of normal human beings. People use defence mechanisms to deal with their anxiety, and they have dreams in which their forbidden desires are fulfilled. The ego feels threatened by the conflict between the contents of the id and the moral codes of the superego and is not aware of what is causing the feeling of anxiety. The ego fears that the superego will punish it for a forbidden drive or action. This could be a drive/action which is experienced consciously or which has already occurred, and that has been relegated by the defence mechanism of repression to the realms of the unconscious. The person is no longer consciously aware of the drive/action, but the superego and the ego are aware of it on an unconscious level and the person experiences anxiety for something unknown. This vague, undefined nature of the object of the anxiety is characteristic of both neurotic and moral anxiety. Anxiety may be so upsetting that the person is compelled to develop a neurosis or a psychosis as the only way out. Normally people use defence mechanisms, dreams and performance errors to cope with anxiety and unfulfilled desires. Defence mechanisms Defense mechanisms: strategies used by the ego to defend itself against the conflict between forbidden drives and moral codes, which causes neurotic and moral anxiety. Defence mechanisms are not used consciously. Defence mechanisms all share 2 characteristics: They are denials and distortions of reality. 13

15 They operate unconsciously and they are geared to keeping anxiety-provoking material unconscious. Repression and resistance Repression: basic unconscious defence mechanism which transfers (represses) drives, wishes or memories that are unacceptable to the superego, to the unconscious. Repressed drives retain their energy and are constantly trying to break through to consciousness. Repression has to be maintained through resistance. Resistance becomes operative when repressed desires threaten to surface at the conscious level, thereby increasing anxiety, for example, during therapy. Projection Projection: an attempt to keep unconscious psychic material unconscious by subjectively changing the focus to the drives or wishes of other people. The person tries to change either neurotic or moral anxiety into reality anxiety, creating a real external danger in the shape of other people whom he experiences as threatening his moral values and whom he can therefore attack. In the person s attempts to do something about this situation, he may possibly use reaction formation. Reaction formation Reaction formation: a mechanism whereby the individual tries to keep a forbidden desire unconscious by adopting a fanatical stance that gives the impression that he or she experiences exactly the opposite desire. Reaction formation is often used in combination with other defence mechanisms, especially projection. Rationalisation Rationalisation: a person s attempt to explain his/her behaviour, towards himself or others, by providing reasons which sound rational, but which are not, in actual fact, the real reasons for his behaviour. It is usually less threatening to blame someone or something else for our failures than to blame ourselves. Rationalising happens unconsciously. The person is not aware of the real reasons for the behaviour he is attempting to explain. Fixation and regression Fixation and regression play an important role in individual development. Fixation: when an individual s psychological development becomes partly stuck at a particular stage. The child behaves in a manner appropriate to an earlier stage and avoids facing the challenges of the next developmental stage. Fixation has a retarding effect on the child s total development. The child will also develop personality characteristics according to the stage where the fixation occurs. There are at least 3 causes of fixation: The specific developmental stage is so pleasurable that the child does not want to move on to the next stage. When drive satisfaction is frustrated (ex: when a child is weaned too soon), a child may become fixated. When the child perceives the next stage as too threatening. Regression: a partial or total return to the behaviour of an earlier stage of development. 14

16 Dreams Closely linked to frustration, and occurs for the same reasons. Anyone who regresses will regress to the stage at which he/she was previously fixated. Identification Identification: the desire to be like somebody else. Identification is of special significance during the phallic stage, especially for boys. A boy s experience of the Oedipus complex (sexual attraction towards the mother and hatred of the father) indicates that he identifies with his father. The boy will imitate his father, thereby developing a superego which represents his father s standards. A boy s identification with his father fulfils several functions: It keeps his forbidden sexual wishes concerning his mother and his aggressive and death wishes towards his father at an unconscious level. It enables him to satisfy his sexual wishes concerning his mother in his fantasies. It leads to the development of the superego. Displacement and sublimation The mechanisms discussed up to this point are by and large ineffective. They do not succeed in reducing the energy attached to the unconscious and anxiety-provoking sexual and aggressive drives. The cause of the anxiety is not addressed, and the ego has to keep up the defence mechanisms. A weak ego: the ego becomes preoccupied with defence. Ultimately the only escape is into psychopathology. Displacement: finding a substitute for the object that society s moral codes forbid and using the substitute object for drive satisfaction. Some of the excess drive energy can be used by this means. Displacement leaves behind a residue of unused drive energy, so it does not entirely solve the problem. When displacement occurs within the therapeutic context, especially when patients feel the love or hate they felt towards their parents in childhood in relation to their therapist, it is called transference. The most effect form of displacement (and the most effective defence mechanism) is sublimation. Sublimation: finding displacement objects and actions which are regarded by society as culturally valuable. When a person employs sublimation he expresses his unacceptable base drives in an acceptable or even valuable way, thereby raising these lower drives into something sublime. Freud was of the opinion that all cultural activities are at least partly the result of sublimation. Dreams result from the repression of desires which, because of the influence of the superego, can be fulfilled only in a distorted way during sleep. Dreams are symbolic representations of repressed desires, fears and conflicts. During sleep, the preconscious censoring function of the ego is less effective than when we are awake. Freud distinguished 2 aspects of the content of dreams: Manifest content the actual events in the dream 15

17 Parapraxes Latent content the hidden symbolic meaning of those events. The latent content undergoes a transformation (dream work) to present itself in disguised form as the manifest content of the dream. Important matters are thus sometimes presented in the dream as unimportant issues, and anxiety-provoking repressed wishes are replaced by less anxietyprovoking thoughts or totally innocent events. Dreams can also be presented as their converse. These distortions prevent us from realising the real nature of our forbidden/repressed wishes, so that we do not awaken. Sometimes the content of the dream is so anxiety-provoking that the dream censor is insufficiently effective and the dream becomes a nightmare. Dream work also causes the person to forget the dream, or part of it, or to distort his recollection of it in some way. Free association: elements of the dream are used as stimulus words to which the patient must respond by revealing everything that comes to mind, irrespective of whether he or she regards it as apt, pleasant, proper or otherwise. Freud compiled a long list of dream symbols (based on mythology and experience with patients) which in his experience always had a specific meaning. Elongated objects are phallic symbols, and rhythmic actions (such as climbing stairs) represent sexual wishes. Paraprax: also called a Freudian slip. A verbal mistake that is thought to reveal a repressed belief, thought or emotion. Parapraxes are caused by unconscious desires and fears than they are a mild form of psychopathology which is found in every normal person. When we hurt ourselves accidentally, it is a kind of punishment we inflict upon ourselves as the outcome of guilt feelings about repressed desires which try to reach consciousness. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY While the overall developmental pattern is determined by biological maturation, the social environment (especially the parents) plays a significant role. The parents behaviour has a profound influence on how well and in what ways the child will manage the problems of each stage and largely determines how successfully the child will progress to the next stage. There are 5 stages, namely the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, the latent stage and the genital stage. The person s personality characteristics are permanently fixed during the first 3 stages (the pre-genital stages). The oral stage From birth to approximately the end of the 1 st year. Main erogenous zone: lips and mouth. Child sucks on mother s breast to fulfil hunger and satisfy oral sexual drive. Weaning causes frustration of the oral sexual drive, and the baby perceives it as punishment. Impatience or interrupted feeding are perceived by the baby as rejection and punishment. Coping mechanism: displacement (thumb, pillow, dummy) Excessive cuddling and motherly love during this stage can cause difficulties by making the child wary of the next stage because he enjoys the present stage too much. 16

18 The anal stage The phallic stage Death drive, which is at first turned against the individual, is directed at external objects (mother). Baby expresses the aggressive drive energy by biting during feeding. When the mother interrupts the feeding in reaction to the biting, he experiences this as punishment. The ego and superego start to develop in contrast to the id, which is inborn. The baby starts to acquire knowledge about external reality and learns that certain objects are edible, while others are not, and that feeding takes place at certain times. This knowledge lays the foundation for the development of the ego. The baby learns, through punishment and reward, what behaviour is acceptable (the first moral rules are absorbed into the superego). Fixation/partial fixation at this stage results in an oral personality. Characteristics: an inordinate dependence on other people, narcissism, excessive optimism, and a tendency to be jealous and envious. Reaction formation can evince the opposite characteristics: selfishness, self-loathing, pessimism, exaggerated generosity. Second year of life Main erogenous zone: anus and excretory canal. Sexual pleasure is derived from excretion and retaining excretion. Toilet training plays a large role in development. The superego develops further as a result of parents punishment and rewards in the context of toilet training. Aggressive urges change during this stage. Aggressive drive energy can be expressed by excreting at the wrong time or refusing to excrete. The child can hurt himself by refusing to excrete, but simultaneously derives a form of sexual pleasure (masochism) from the retention. Fixation/partial fixation at this stage results in an anal personality. Characteristics: traits which are related to toilet training, such as excessive neatness, thriftiness and obstinacy, or their opposites. Sadism and masochism, as well as obsessive compulsive neuroses, are also associated with fixation in the anal stage. The children come to regard faeces as valuable items which can be given to (reward) or withheld from (punishment) parents. Faeces have a symbolic connection with money. From 3 to 5 or 6 years The source of sexual drive energy is no longer purely physical. Deep and complex psychic wishes are now the basis of psychosexual development, namely sexual wishes related to the parents, the penis and, in the case of girls, the absence of a penis. Boys: Main source of drive energy: penis. Often fondles penis (masturbation), and develops sexual desires in relation to his mother and would like to take on his father s sexual function. He knows that he cannot, and he becomes jealous and even hates his father. The masturbation, sexual overtures toward his mother (including peeping at her or getting into her bed), as well as his aggression towards his father, lead to ridicule and/or punishment. This punishment is perceived as a threat of castration (castration anxiety). The boy tries to cope with the Oedipus complex through repression and identification. He represses his sexual and aggressive desires and his castration anxiety, and identifies with 17

19 Girls: The latent stage The genital stage his father (he wants to be like his father big, strong, and manly). If he can be like his father, he can enjoy the respect and love of his mother. This identification means that he imitates his father s behaviour, and assumes some of his characteristics, which leads to the superego attaining its final development. The repression of the Oedipus complex is the first great achievement of the superego and the final stage in its development. The girl realises she does not have a penis, and holds her mother responsible for this defect. As a result, she feels anger and hatred towards her mother. She envies her father for having a penis (penis envy). The girl thinks she can acquire a penis from the father. Electra complex: sexual attraction towards the father and hatred of the mother. The sexual and aggressive urges remain unconscious as a result of repression. Identification with the mother causes the daughter to imitate the sexual role of the mother in the family. As a result of her lack of castration anxiety, the girl does not develop as strong and relentless a superego as a boy s. Fixation/partial fixation is related to a large variety of neurotic characteristics. Castration anxiety and penis envy are at the core of most of the problems arising out of this stage (sexual adaption problems in general and especially homosexuality). The superego undergoes its major development during this stage. An overly strict superego can cause problems later in life. An overly strict superego can develop in 3 main ways: If a father is too strict, the son may internalise the father s strict, rigid rules through his identification with the father. A child s superego may become unyielding in cases where the father is often or permanently absent. A harsh superego may develop when the father is not strict enough. If the father is permanently absent or if he is not strict enough, a strong superego will develop because the son cannot express sufficient aggressive drive energy outwards (towards the father), so it is directed internally against himself. From 5 or 6 years to the start of puberty. No new physical source of sexual drive energy. Due to the repression of the Oedipus complex and the child s identification with the parent of the same sex, children are mainly concerned with learning their gender role. Child plays mainly with same-sex friends in order to consolidate their acquisition of appropriate sexrole behaviour. Freud also calls this the homosexual stage. From puberty until the end of life Source of sexual drive energy: the entire sexual apparatus, which includes the pre-genital sources (mouth, anus and phallus) as well as the sexual glands. The sexual wishes of the pre-genital stages are reawakened, particularly those of the phallic stage. The repression which was effective in the phallic stage is not able to cope with the conflict between sexual urges and the moral code of the superego. 18

20 Displacement and sublimation enable the child to cope. Pre-genital sexual urges are partially satisfied through heterosexual relationships (especially through kissing and caressing), and also by using substitute sexual actions and objects. Aggressive urges are partially satisfied through work and sport. A man falls in love with a women who is similar to his mother, and therefore a substitute. A woman chooses a man who is similar to her father, and therefore a substitute. She would like to have a child (especially a son) who is a symbolic substitute for the penis she lacks. The child may also use regression to cope with anxiety if he struggles to cope with the sexual energy. For example, a teenager who experiences problems with the reawakened sex drive may regress to thumb-sucking or the sucking of a pen. RECAP: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPEREGO IN THE FIRST 3 STAGES Oral stage: the superego begins to develop. Children learn what behaviour is acceptable from their parents punishment and rewards, in this way incorporating society s rules within the superego. Anal stage: toilet training and the way this is done by the parents plays a most important role in teaching children society s rules. Parents punishment and rewards during toilet training are important. Phallic stage: note the very important role of sexual identification in the final formation of the superego. The boy, who identifies with his father and copies his behaviour, not only adopts his father s characteristics but also society s moral codes as they are represented by his father. Also note the father s contribution to an over- or underdeveloped superego, and in what respect the superego differs in boys and girls, according to Freud. The superego undergoes its final development during the phallic stage. OPTIMAL DEVELOPMENT There is not much difference between healthy people and psychologically disturbed people. Both groups are struggling with the same psychic problems, namely the handling of continual conflict between drives and morals. Healthy people are simply better at conflict resolution. Freud believed that a completely conflict-free existence is not possible, but the genital character is the closest to the ideal of balanced character management. The genital character can be described from 3 perspectives: Dynamic viewpoint: looked at from the perspective of Freud s development and theory, the genital character is characterised by the fact that the genital stage of development is attained without any fixations on pre-genital stages. Structural viewpoint: this ideal personality type has a strong ego and a superego that is not overly strict. These characteristics are what determine how the genital character functions. Dynamic viewpoint: the genital character type s ego is capable of effective reality testing. These types of people use the most effective defence mechanism, namely sublimation. They are able to satisfy their sexual and aggressive urges in socially acceptable and appreciated ways which, in turn, implies that they will have a satisfactory sexual relationship with someone of the opposite sex and will find fulfilment in their work. Freud summarised these attributes as the ability to love and to work. 19