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1 Effiemtntqerlp mw& WmttEfrmg Tmm rltr,tsm AYELET FISHBACH BENJAMIN A. CONVERSE l"l espite knowing well tht "you cn't hve your cke nd et it too," people still wnt lj mny conflicting things t once; tht is, people wnt to fulfill short-term desires, nd they wnt to do so without obstructing their long-term interests. Thus, weight wtchers wish to et mny delicious ckes, nd they lso wish not to look like they hve eten mny delicious ckes. Similrly, professionls wish for erly leve on Fridy fternoon, nd they lso wish for erly promotions t yer-end reviews. And feuding prtners wnt to hve the lst word in every bttle, nd they lso wnt to mintin their reltionship through every bttle. In world where people wnt to hve it both wys-to enjoy the moment nd to prosper in the long run, how do they protect long-term interests from the llure of short-term desires? An individul fces self-control dilemm whenever the ttinment of n lluring desire or tempttion would conflict with more importnt, longer-term gols (Ainslie, 1.992; Loewenstein, 1.996; Rchlin, 2000; Thler, 1,991,; Trope & Fishbch, 2000). Despite the pervsiveness of self-control dilemms, identifying tht sitution poses such dilemm cn be surprisingly difficult. Thus, when people choose to pursue short-term desires, it is not lwys s result of bd judgment defeting good judgment in the rchetypl bttle. In mny cses, people choose the tempting option becuse they do not relize it will hurt them in the long run. For exmple, the professionl my leve work erly becuse she does not consider tht leving erly on single Fridy fternoon will put her promotion t risk, just s the smoker my light up without considering tht single cigrette poses helth risk. It is only when one hs identified potentil conflict tl-rt resolution in fvor of higher-order gols hinges on effective employment of self-control strtegles, This chpter reviews our reserch on identifying nd countercting tempttions. First, it is useful to define tempttions versus gols.we define these conflicting motiv- I uonr'noo,oo S:rO:+S ev I

2 ldentifying nd Bttling Tempttion z+ tions within given context nd with respect to ech other (Fishbch& Shh, 2005; Lender, Shh, & Chrtrnd, 2009). A stimulus cn only represent tempttion with respect to nother, higher-order gol, which the individul believes is more importnr. According to this definition, tempttions do not hve specific content. Rther, ny personl motivtion cn potentilly constitute n interfering tempttion with respect to higher-level gol, or it cn constitute n overriding gol with respect to lower-level tempttion. For exmple, "mking friends" my be perceived s tempttion tht interferes with the pursuit of "going to clss," nd it my be perceived s gol with which the pursuit of "being competitive" interferes. Similrly, drinking nd smoking interfere with the pursuit of helthy lifestyle (hence, they re tempttions), but t the sme time they promote socil cceptnce to certin socil groups (hence, they re gols). Effective self-control opertes on the focl ctivity in wy tht depends on its reltive sttus in the present motivtionl conflict. Self-control increses the strength of gols nd decreses the strength of competing impulses or tempttlons. CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION Success t self-control depends first on identifying conflict. When observing single behvior tht resembles self-control filure, it is sfe to ssume tht conflict is identified only if the long-term costs of indulgence re cler nd high. Cheting on one's spouse, for exmple, my crry extreme long-term costs, such tht person choosing this pth hs likely considered the possible devstting consequences nd tried, but filed, to resist. As the long-term costs of single tempttion indulgence decrese, however, it becomes less certin tht one will identify potentil self-control conflict. For exmple, the ner impcr of single jelly donut is probbly negligible to person's overll helth. Tempttions like this one, for which single consumption experience hs negligible negtive consequences, re pervsive. We term them epsilon-cost tempttions (s opposed to cler-cost tempttions; Myrseth & Fishbch, 2009b). It is only through repeted consumption tht the cost of these kinds of indulgences becomes consequentil. The question of conflict identifiction further becomes trivil whenever externl gents (e.g., prents, eductors, experimenters) identify the conflict for the individul nd explicitly demnd restrint. For exmple, in ego-depletion reserch, prticipnts re specificlly instructed to void some impulse (e.g., to et rdishes rther thn cookies, to suppress emotlons ln response to some evoctive stimulus; Bumeister, Brtslvsky, Murven, & Tice, 1998). And in dely-of-grtifiction prdigms, children re explicitly told to resist short-term rewrds in fvor of long-term pyoff (e.g., one mrshmllow now in fvor of two mrshmllows lter; Mischel & Bker, 1975).In these situtions the reserchers identify the conflict for the individul, so ny success or filure necessrily reflects the person's ttempts to resist tht tempttron.!7ht then fcilittes identifiction of conflict for epsilon-cost tempttions? lwe suggest tht viewing n ction opportunity with widtb-tht is, in reltion to future opportunities-fcilittes conflict identifiction. Frming single opportunity to cr in isoltion my not cue the presence of conflict, wheres frming the opportunity in reltion to other opportunities is more likely to cue conflict. The person who sys "One jelly donut won't kill me," perceives the tempttion in isoltion, notes tht there re trivil I uon.,noo,0, S:lO:S ev I

3 246 COGNITIVE, PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND NEUROLOGICAL DIMENSIONS costs ssocited with eting it, nd likely does not experience conflict between this brekfst nd his more importnt helth gols. The person who is plnning new morning routine, however, my be more likely to perceive tody's choice of donut in reltion to mny future brekfst choices, nd my be more likely to identify self-control conflict. In ddition, conflict identifiction lso requires consistency. The individul must expect the present decision to be replyed in future opportunities.'when setting morning routine, for exmple, the diner will only feel conflicted bout his donut if he expects it to set precedent for future mornings. If tody is specil donut dy, wheres future dys will be fruit dys insted, then the donut will not pose thret to long-term helth gols, nd conflict will not be identified. 'tjfe next summrize the evidence tht the frme necessry for conflict identifiction is one tht meets conditions of both width nd conststency. e Width: Perceiving Current Choices in Reltion to Future Choices A filure to identify self-control conflict occurs when individuls respond to contextul cues or opportunities rther mindlessly, without considering pttern of responses or lrge "brcket" (Rchlin, 2000; Red, Loewenstein, & Rbin, 1999). For exmple when hbitul smokers light up cigrette in response to contextul cues (e.g.,"gin nd tonic") they often fil to consider pttern of behviors tht would undermine their long-term interests ('Wood& Nel, 2007). Mking decisions within wider brckets, in contrst, encourges people to consider multiple opportunities together, thus incresing the likelihood of identifying potentil self-control conflict. In one illustrtive study (Red, Loewenstein, & Klynrmn, 1999), students who chose three video rentls simultneously chose more highbrow over lowbrow movies (e.g., Schindler's List over My Cousin Vinny) thn did students who chose ech video on the dy they would wtch it. The simultneous condition induced students to consider choice pttern, thus mking self-control conflicts between plesurble but not thought-provoking lowbrow movies nd difficult but enriching highbrow movies more slient, nd leding students to choose more highbrow movies. In our reserch, we find tht even subtle cues for wide versus nrrow frme re sufficient to influence conflict identifiction nd success t self-control. For exmple, in one study, we (Myrseth & Fishbch, 2009b) set up free food stnd in n re of cmpus tht commonly provides such menities. The stnd fetured n ssortment of crrots nd chocoltes, nd lrge sign invited pssersby to help themselves "in celebrtion of the lighter nd wrmer times hed." In the wide-frme condition, the sign indicted this ws the "Spring Food Stnd," wheres in the nrrow-frme condition, the sign indicted it ws the "April 12th Food Stnd." Accordingly, prticipnts consumed fewer chocoltes nd more crrots when the sign implied wide versus nrrow frming. Extnt work on choice brcketing nd more recent work exploring the conflict experience thus illustrte the first necessry condition for self-control conflict identifiction. Low-cost tempttions do not seem problemtic in nrrow frmes or on specil occsions: They only introduce conflict when they re considered in reltion to future choices, becuse only the ccumulted cost of these tempttions undermines gol ttinment. tj/ide frmes therefore promote conflict identifiction. I uon"'noo,ou :f O:+S ef.,f I

4 ldentifying nd Bttling Tempttion z+t Consistency: Expecting Future Choices to Be Similr to Current Choices Even when one considers current nd future choices in reltion to ech other, conflict identifiction further requires tht one expect current choices to be consistent with future choices. This depends on which of two dynmics, or choice ptterns, n individul expects to follow when considering sequence of ctions. Our reserch hs helped to drw the distinction between sequences tht blnce gols nd tempttions over time, nd sequences tht highlight gols (Fishbch, Dhr, kzhng,2005; Fishbch & Zhng, 2008; Koo & Fishbch, 2008). ln blncing dynmic, individuls pln to lternte between gols nd tempttions in successive choices. One cn therefore give in to tempttion without identifying conflict if she expects tht tomorrow she will switch to pursuing the gol insted. If one plns to choose fruit tomorrow, then choosing cke over fruit tody does not pose thret to long-term helth gols. This pttern of behviors contrsts with choice dynmic of highlighting.in highlighting dynmic, individuls pln to pursue the sme motive on ech opportunity. In this dynmic, choice between cke nd fruit rouses the conflict tht is chrcteristic of self-control dilemm. In one study of the consequences of these opposing choice dynmics (Fishbch& Zhng,2008), helthy versus unhelthy food choices were presented to prticipnts in one of two formts. Some prticipnts encountered one bowl with pckets of bby crrots nd seprte bowl with chocoltes. Presenting these options prt induced sense of competition between them, which ws expected to invoke highlighting dynmic (et helthy now nd lter). Other prticipnts encountered one big bowl with crrots nd chocoltes interspersed. Presenting these options together induced sense of complementrity, which ws expected to invoke blncing dynmic (et unhelthy now nd compenste lter). Accordinglp prticipnts chose crrots more frequently when the items were presented prt thn when they were presented together. \7e ssumed tht the highlighting dynmic incresed the likelihood of identifying self-control conflict nd therefore led prticipnts in this condition to exercise self-control. Indeed, consistent with our interprettion, individul differences in the strength of the weight-wtching gol (i.e., how much prticipnts wnted to lose weight) predicted helthy food choices when the options were presented prt but not when they were presented together. We cn therefore conclude tht presenting options prt helped individuls identify self-control problem nd, s result, their ctions were more closely ssocited with the strength of their desire to et helthy. The blncing dynmic thretens the enggement of self-control, becuse choices consistent with short-term rther thn long-term gols cn be mde t ech opportunity, without the experience of conflict. When one plns to switch between gols nd tempttions, this tends to promote "tempttion now, gol lter" pln, which provides instnt grtifiction nd continully postpones gol pursuit. Tempttion indulgence thus ensues not s result of self-control filure but s repeted filure to identify self-control conflict in the first plce. This inconsistent pttern of choices is illustrted in full by nother study of immedite nd delyed choices. In tht study, we (Fishbch k Zhng,2008) sked prticipnts to choose full two-course mel consisting of n entr6e (immedite choice) nd dessert (delyed choice). Some prticipnts chose from menu tht presented the unhelthier fre on one pge nd the helthier fre on seprte pge to induce sense of competition nd highlighting dynmic. Other prticipnts chose from menu tht presented the I uonr,noo,ot 6t22t2O1O S:lO:+S ev I

5 z+6 COGNITIVE, PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND NEUROLOGICAL DIMENSIONS unhelthy nd helthy fre mixed together cross the two pges to induce complementrity nd blncing dynmic. As expected, those who chose from seprte menus were better ble to identify nd resolve the self-control conflict: They tended to prefer helthy entrees nd desserts. Those who chose from one menu, in comprison, plnned to choose helthy desserts for lter but opted to indulge in more unhelthy entrees up front. We cn thus conclude tht perceiving multiple ction opportunities (width) is necessry but insufficient condition for identifying self-control conflict. In ddition, one must see the potentil for consistent ctions tht correspond to either tempttion or the more importnt gol. Given tht conflict hs been identified upon encountering tempttion, the individul is likely to exert self-control efforts. In wht follows, we ddress our reserch on counterctive control, which describes the process by which individuls offset the influence of tempttion on gol pursuit. COU NTERACTIVE CONTROL: ASYMMETRIC RESPONSES TO GOALS AND TEMPTATIONS Self-control works to resolve the tension between gols nd tempttions. According to counterctiue control theory (Fishbch& Trope, 2005; Trope & Fishbch, 2000), the essence of this process involves symmetriclly shifting the motivtionl strengths of conflicting motivtions. High-order gols re strengthened so they my override loworder tempttions. Low-order tempttions re wekened, so they my be overridden by high-order gols. These symmetric shifts in motivtionl strength my be chieved by modulting the sitution (e.g., imposing penlties, rewrds) or by modulting mentl representtions of the sitution (e.g., devluing or bolstering the vlue of ctivities). These shifts my further involve explicit opertions tht require conscious wreness nd plnning, or implicit processes tht operte with miniml wreness nd conscious plnning. Regrdless of the specific type of self-control opertion, its function is similr: It either increses the tendency to operte on personl motive or decreses the tendency to operte on it, depending on the sttus of the motive s gol or tempttion. 'W'e summrize the vrious self-control opertions in Tble 13.1 nd elborte on them in this section. Importntly, ech opertion increses proportionlly, s the strength of the tempttion increses, to diminish the impct of tempttion on one's behvior. Thus, when people nticipte strong (vs. wek) tempttion, they increse their self-control efforts pro- TABLE Self-Control Strtegies Tht Crete Asymmetric Chnge in Motivtionl Strength of Gols nd Tempttions Chnging the choice sitution Tempttions o o Self-imposed penlties Precommitment to forego Avoidnce Gols Self-imposed rewrds Precommitmento pursue Approch Chnging the psychologicl mening of choice options I Devlue Cool nd bstrct construl Setting low expecttions Inhibit Bolster Hot nd concrete construl Setting high expecttions Activte Vohs indb O S:fO:S efvf I

6 tdentifying nd Btfling Tempttion Z4g portionlly' As result, their likelihood of dhering to their long-term interests remrns ) counterct it nd work hrder to pursue their To demonstrre the impct of nticip Fishbch, 2009) studied people's coopertr dilemms; Dwes, 19g0; Messick &^Bre* self-control conflict, becuse people recogn outweigh the short-term pyoffs of comp*eti for n immedite benefit (Dewirte& De Crr Modulting Choice Situtions If people identify potentil conflict in dvi occurs by chnging the choice set, so it no ment strtegy restricts their options but incrr people my strregiclly ffeit the vlue of Precommitment lvhen potentil conflicts berween gols nd self-regultors my diverge from th-e commo J uon.'noo,on 6/22/2010 S:1O;+S ev /

7 250 COGNITIVE, PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND NEUROLOGICAL DIMENSIONS when given the option to set them in dvnce. By precommitting, these students not only took on unnecessry potentil costs, such s grde penlties for lte submissions, but lso limited their pursuit of tempttions nd incresed the motivtionl strength of their cdemic pursuits. o Penlties nd Rewrds Another wy to chnge the sitution in fvor of gols is to ffect the reltive vlue of gols nd tempttions symmetriclly. One wy people cn proctively stck the deck ginst tempttions is to bolster the vlue of gol pursuit by ttching contingent bonuses. When people wger with friends tht they cn finish mrthon, promise themselves new outfit for losing 10 pounds, or let themselves leve n hour erly from work if they cn complete their to-do list, they re using contingent bonuses to mke their gols more vluble. In one experimentl demonstrtion of this behvior (Trope& Fishbch, 2000), students were given the opportunity to receive relible nd ccurte feedbck bout their future helth risks. Some of the students lerned tht the necessry medicl test would be highly uncomfortble, thus mking it tempting to void the test nd lose the long-term benefits of receiving the results. Other students lerned tht the medicl test would be very esy, thus posing no risk to deter them from pursuing the long-term benefits. Students who fced n uncomfortble (vs. esy) medicl test, nd who thought the feedbck ws importnt, more frequently opted to mke their study compenstion contingent on completing the exm. By self-imposing this contingency, they were exercising self-control, risking their compenstion, but mking it more likely tht they would follow through on the ction providing long-term benefits. The symmetry of counterctive control suggests tht people cn similrly stck the deck ginst tempttions using self-imposed penlties, This populr self-control tool recently becme vilble t stickk ( website tht relies primrily on the principle of self-imposed penlties. Here, people cn write contrcts to help them stick to their gols, preuthorizing certin punishments for rempttion indulgence. An extr hour of sleep might seem less ppeling to n spiring mrthoner, for exmple, if she hs contrcted to forfeit money to despised chrity for missing her workout. In support of this principle, one study demonstrted tht the strong tempttion to interrupt 3-dy glucose fst (compred with the weker tempttion of interrupting 5-hour glucose fst) led people to set higher monetry penlties for themselves (Trope 6c Fishbch, 2000). By greeing to penlize themselves, these people incresed their likelihood of persisting through the long-term fst despite the strong tempttion to give in. When there is tension between the vlue of gols, nd competing tempttions, contingent bonuses tip the scles towrd gols nd contingent penlties tip the scles wy from tempttions. Both chnges to the choice sitution increse the reltive vlue nd, therefore, the pursuit of higher-order gols. Approch nd Avoidnce When choice sets feture gols nd formidble tempttions, people might increse the motivtionl strength of high-order gols by keeping their distnce from the tempttions nd estblishing their proximity to objects ssocited with their gols (Ainslie, 1992;Schelling,1984; Thler 6c Shefrin, 1981). Diners often sk witers to cler rheir I uon.,noo,ro 6t22l2O1O S:fO:+S efvf I

8 ldentifying nd Bttling Tempttion 251 hlf-eten pltes, just to help drem stop picking t mels tht hve lredy stisfied them. Motivted students my delibertely select rooms tht re closer to the librry nd further from frternity row to fcilitte studying nd void prtying. And on the interpersonl level, people keep distnce from those who re believed to exert "bd influence" (e.g., n ex-boyfriend), while mintining proximity to those who help them pursue long-term interests (Fitzsimons& Shh, 2008). Actions like these, by which effective self-regultors explicidy nd routinely resist tempttions, my develop into implicit dispositions to pproch gols nd void tempttions. These dispositions cn be cted on effortlessly upon encountering tempttion. Self-conrrol reserch hs investigted vriety of implicit self-control strtegies tht often ccompny, or sometimes replce, explicit, delibertive control (e.g., Fishbch, Friedmn, & Kruglnski, 2003; Fishbch 6c Shh, 2005; Fishbch & Trope, 2007;Fujit & Hn,2009; Gollwitzer,Byer, & McCulloch,2004; Moskowitz, Gollwitzer,'lfsel, & Schl, 1,999).Implicit self-control differs from other mechnisms of unconscious gol pursuit (Arts & Dijksterhuis, 2000; Brgh, Gollwitzer, Lee-Chi, Brndollr, & Troetschel, 2001; Shh & Kruglnski, 2003; see lso Ppies 6c Arts, Chpter 7, this volume) in tht it countercts the influence of situtionlly primed gols tht conflict with other, higher-order gols. For exmple, ccording to unconscious gol priming, cues bout one's boyfriend (e.g., seeing his nme) cn ctivte the gol to think crefully bout the behvior of socil trgets (Fitzsimons& Brgh, 2003). To the extent, however, tht this gol to think bout others' behvior conflicts with higher-order gol (e.g., when trying to py ttention in clss rther thn check for Twitter updtes), ccording to work on implicit self-control, this sme prime could increse efforts to ignore this socil trget. In series of studies, we (Fishbch& Shh, 2005) exmined the implicit nlogue to explicit pproch nd voidnce self-control strtegies. The min prediction ws tht prticipnts would dopt n utomtic pproch tendency to gol-relted stimuli nd n voidnce tendency to tempttion-relted stimuli. In one study, prticipnts completed lexicl decision tsk, deciding whether letter strings represented words or nonwords. On some trils, they indicted words by pushing loystick wy from themselves, nd on others they indicted words by pulling the joystick towrd themselves. An pproch orienttion enbles fster pulling of lever, wheres n voidnce orienttion enbles fster pushin g wy of lever (Chen& Brgh, 1.999; Mrkmn & Brendl, 2005; Solrz, 1960). Embedded in the words were prticipnts'own idiosyncrtic gols (e.g., exercisel, tempttions (e.g., lcohol), nd control ctivities (e.g., internship).this study found tht prticipnts were fster to pull gol-relted (thn tempttion-relted) words, nd fster to push tempttion-relted (thn gol-relted) words. A follow-up study found tht tendency to pproch cdemic gols nd void noncdemic tempttions relted to higher grde point verges. Thus, this very simple implicit ction disposition is ssocited with rel self-regultory benefits..when self-control chnges the sitution, people re ffecting objective fetures of the choice sets vilble to them. Contingent bonuses ctully mke gol pursuit more ttrctive, nd contingent penlties ctully increse the objective price of indulgence. Precommitment works by incresing the vilbility of gol-relevnt options nd decresing the vilbility of options tht could tempt one wy. And by pproching gols nd voiding tempttions, people physiclly drw closer to gol-relevnt objects nd crete distnce from tempting objects. In the next section, we discuss how self-control cn operte without exerting n objective influence on the choice set or the environment. o I uon.,noo,rt e:ro:s efu I

9 zcz COGNITIVE, PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND NEUROLOGICAL DIMENSIONS Modu lti ng Mentl Representtions Self-control strtegies cn lso operte purely through mentl representtions. By bringing gol-relted options nd ctions to mind, nd inhibiting thoughts bout tempttions, people increse the likelihood of gol pursuit. By focusing on the positive spects of gol-relted objects nd the negtive spects of tempttion-relted objects, people cn inflte the subjective vlue of gols nd increse the Iikelihood of their pursuit. Similrly, reflecting on the cool, bstrct fetures of tempttion rther thn the hot, concrete fetures ffects the motivtionl strength in fvor of gol pursuit. Additionlly, people cn modulte their future plns to increse gol pursuit, By setting optimistic expecttions for future choices (i.e., more gol enggement, less tempttion enggement), people cn motivte incresed gol pursuit. We discuss ech of these chnging mentl representtrons ln turn. Acti v ti o n / l n h i b i ti on Erlier, we discussed self-control strtegies tht operte by chnging reltive vilbilities in the choice sitution. Expecting future self-control conflict, people precommit to choice sets tht hve more gol-relted options nd fewer tempttion-relted options, like the dieter who stocks the house with fruit nd strips the house of cookies. Our reserch suggests tht people hve developed other strtegies tht similrly ffect vilbility, but solely t the level of mentl representtions (Fishbch et 1.,2003); tht is, counterctive control lso entils chnges in the ctivtion level of gol- nd tempttion-relted constructs. By ctivting constructs relted to high-order gols in response to reminders of interfering tempttions, people increse the reltive mentl "vilbility" of golconsistent behvior. Alterntively, by inhibiting tempttion-relted constructs in response to reminders of overriding gols, people decrese the reltive mentl "vilbility" of tempttion-relted behvior. These symmetric mentl opertions on gol nd tempttion constructs increse the likelihood tht one will secure high-order gols. Specificlly, we found tht subliminl presenttion of tempttion-relted construct fcilitted the ctivtion of constructs relted to potentilly thretened gol. In one study, prticipnts first indicted their own gol-tempttion pirs (e.g., clsssleelt, sue-spend). In sequentil priming prdigm, gol-relted words (clss) were more quickly recognized following subliminl presenttion of relevnt tempttion-relted words (sleep) thn irrelevnt tempttion-relted words (spend). Consistent with work on gol shielding (Shh, Friedmn, & Kruglnski,2002), we lso documented the symmetric effect on tempttions. In prticulr, we found tht it took longer for prticipnts to recognize tempttion-relted words (sleep) following subliminl presenttion of relevnt gols (clss) thn irrelevnt gols (sue). Thus, counterctive control influenced mentl vilbility in fvor of gols (by ctivting them in response to tempttions) nd ginst tempttions (by inhibiting thern in response to gols). The resource independence of this strtegy ws demonstrted in subsequent study, which found these sme effects even under cognitive lod. Similr strtegies cn be set in motion by suprliminl primes s well. In nother study (Fishbch et l., 2003), dieters were influenced by (supposedly) incidentl spects of the sitution in which they mde food choices. Specificlly, the dieters either spent time in room scttered with ftty food items nd gourmet mgzines, or with helth mg- o I vons,inoo zsz lO S:tO:+S ev I

10 ldentifying nd Bttling Tempttion 253 zines nd dieting fliers, or with generl interest mgzines, before completing lexicl decision tsk. Those who spent time in the tempttion-relted food room were fster to recognize the word diet nd,lter, were more likely to choose pples thn chocoltes s free gift. Thus, the presence of tempttions in the environment ctivted concepts ssocited with overriding gols nd ffected subsequent choice consistently. As wrth implicit ctivtion nd inhibition, the presence of these implicit responses chrcterizesuccessful self-regultors more thn unsuccessful self-regultors (Ppies, Stroebe, & Arts, 2008). Vlue Self-control strtegies ffect the objective vlue of options in the choice sitution, such tht in nticiption of self-control conflict, people often bundle gol pursuit with bonuses nd tempttion indulgence with penlties. 'While these contingent bonuses nd penlties chnge objective fetures of the choice sitution, people cn lso lter the perceived vlue of gols nd tempttions simply through chnging mentl representtions. People my bolster the vlue of high-order gols by linking the ttinment of these gols to their self stndrds (Bndur, t989) or by elborting on wht mkes them positive (e.g., importnt, ppeling, ttrctive, etc.; Beckmnn & Kuhl, 1985; Fishbch, Shh, & Kruglnski, 2004; Kuhl, 1984). They my further devlue tempttions by disssociting these motives from the self, or ignoring spects tht mke tempttions positively vlued. This symmetric bolstering nd devlution my then tke n explicit or implicit form. The vilbility of tempttions should then ffect judgments of their subjective vlue. When vilble, potentil tempttions pose thret to higher-order gols. The Atkins diet devotee, for instnce, will experience gret conflict upon wndering by the wfting frgrnce of bkery. Assuming the dieter identifies this thret, he should engge counterctive control processes to protect the long-term gol. One wy to protect the diet is to devlue the bred ("The bred in the window doesn't look very good tody"). However, if the tempttions re not vilble (if the bkery is closed for the dy) there is no need for self-control, nd their perceived vlue should not be impcted ("Tht bred in the window looks delicious"). Thus, becuse of counterctive control, mking tempttions vilble should mke them less tempting. Our reserch (Myrseth, Fishbch, & Trope, 2009) put this hypothesis to the test by presenting exercisers on their wy out of the gym with choice between helth brs nd chocolte brs. Almost everybody chose helth br to tke home, nd we exmined how they evluted their two vilble options. Specificlly, one group evluted the foods before choosing the helth br. For these people, the chocolte brs represented tempting lterntive to the food option tht ws consistent with their long-term helth gols. As predicted, they countercted this tempttion by dmpening their positive evlutions of the chocolte brs reltive to the helth brs. A seprte group evluted the foods fter choosing the helth br. Once this choice ws mde, the chocoltes no longer represented thret to long-term gols. For these people, there ws no evidence of counterctive evlution-the helth brs nd chocolte brs were evluted s eqully ttrctive. The dmpened evlutions were in the service of promoting higher-order gols, nd they followed pttern opposite to tht of the "sour grpes" effect (i.e., devlution of unvilble options) tht dissonnce theory would predict (Festinger, 1,957). Insted, they reflected "reverse" spreding of lterntives (Aronson,1997; Brehm, 1,956). Rther thn preserving the integrity of one's decision by incresing postchoice evlutions of the I uon.'noo,u S:f O:3 efrl I

11 zc4 COGNITIVE, PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND NEUROLOGICAL DIMENSIONS chosen option, counterctive control led people to protect their high-order gols from lluring tempttions by incresing the chosen option's evlution before choice. Notbly, these counterctive evlutions mnifest in implicit judgments s well. In one study (Fishbch, Zhng, & Trope, 2010), prticipnts completed n evlutive priming procedure (Brgh, Chiken, Govender, & Prtto, 1992;Fzio, Jckson, Dunton, & 'Willims, 1,995), in which they ctegorized ffective words s positive (e.g., pece, loue) or negtive (e.g., euil, cncer). Subliminl primes preceded the ffective trget words. Sometimes the primes were helthy foods (e.g., pple, broccoli), nd other times they were unhelthy foods (e.g., bcon, fries).evlutions of the helthy nd unhelthy food primes were thus indexed by the reltive fcility of ctegorizing the positive versus negtive words tht followed them. For exmple, more positive evlutions of helthy foods would be reflected by subsequendy fster ctegoriztion of pece nd loue, nd slower ctegoriztion of euil nd cncer. Importntly, before beginning the evlutive priming tsk, ll prticipnts first viewed series of imges s prt of n ostensible visul perception tsk. In the highccessibility tempttion condition, number of the imges were of unhelthy tempttions, such s fried chicken nd ice crem. In the low ccessibility condition, these imges were replced with mundne control imges, such s hmmers nd lmps. This study found tht helthy concepts were evluted more positively nd unhelthy concepts more negtively in the high-ccessibility thn the low-ccessibility condition. Thus, only when people considered the vrious foods tht thretened to tempt them wy from their gols did they counterctively devlue unhelthy foods nd bolstered helthy foods. Levels of Construl Another mentl opertion tht people employ strtegiclly to shift the motivtionl strength of gols nd tempttions is to chnge the processing level t which these competing motivtions re construed. A tempting double-moch ltte with extr whipped crem for exmple, cn be viewed in "cool," bstrct, psychologiclly distnced wy or in "hot," concrete, psychologiclly proximl wy. A cooler, bstrct, nd more distnced view of this tempttion should ttenute its thret to overriding gols (Fujit & Hn, 2009; Fujit, Trope, Libermn, E< Levin-Sgi, 2006; Kross, Ayduk, 6c Mischel, 2005; Metclfe & Mischel, 1,999; see lso Ledgerwood Ec Trope, Chpter 12, this volume). Consistent with this logic, children who were striving to void eting mrshmllows now (in fvor of more mrshmllows lter), were more successful t witing if they thought of the mrshmllows in cool, nonppetitive terms, such s "white, puffy clouds" or "round, white moons" rther thn s "sweet nd chewy nd soft" (Mischel & Bker, 1975).ln nother study (Fujit et l., 2006), dults who construed tempttion in high-level, bstrct fshion (rther thn low-level, concrete fshion) were willing to py smller premium to receive ttrctive gifts sooner rther thn lter. The symmetry ssumption of counterctive control suggests tht gol-congruent choice could lso be incresed by forming "hot," concrete, or psychologiclly proximl representtion of the benefits of gol pursuit. This hypothesis is consistent with the demonstrted benefits of concrete implementtion intentions (Gollwitzer,7999). For exmple, in study on the regultion of cdemic gols, students formed concrete behviorl plns to fcilitte pursuit of their cdemic gols (Gollwitzer k Brndstdtter, 1,997). I uon.,noo,ro :10:43 PM

12 ldentifying nd Bttling Tempttion zc5 Expecttions The mentl opertions we hve discussed so fr ct directly on representtions of the gols nd tempttions tht re in competition. Representtions of gol constructs re incresingly ctivted, their vlues re bolstered, nd they re considered in more hot, concrete or proximl wys. Similrly, representtions of tempttion constructs re inhibited, their vlues re undermined, nd they re construed in more cool, bstrct, or distnced wys. The mentl representtions of gol pursuit, however, include constructs other thn those directly relted to the motivtion itself or to relted objects. Mentl representtions lso include, for instnce, plns of ction (e.g., implementtion intentions; Gollwitzer, 1999) nd performnce stndrds (Locke 6c Lthm, 1990; 'l7right & Brehm, 1,989).Indeed, reserch hs identified counterctive control strtegies tht operte on these spects ol gol representtions s well. The strtegy of counterctive optimism symmetriclly ffects people's nticipted gol nd tempttion pursuits, which in turn influence their ctul motivtion to pursue gols or give in to tempttions (Zhng & Fishbch, 2010). Specificlly, counterctiue optimism refers to tendency to provide optimistic predictions of future enggement with gols nd disenggement from tempttions. These optimistic predictions ct s higher performnce stndrds tht elicit greter motivtion thn lower performnce stndrds, becuse people djust their effort to mtch their nticipted level of performnce (Atkinson & Fether, 1.966;Brehm Ec Self, 1989; Heth, Lrrick, & \7u, 1999; Locke & Lthm, 1990; Oettingen & Myer, 2002;Tylor 6c Brown, 1988). For exmple, in one study (Zhng & Fishbch, 2010), prticipnts predicted their performnce on tsk tht they were to complete either in the presence or bsence of cler obstcles to gol ttinment. Specificlly, they were sked to predict how well they would do on n ngrm tsk to be completed while listening to music. The music ws portryed s either potentilly helpful or potentilly hrmful to performnce. Prticipnts who were motivted to perform well mde predictions tht would counterct the obstcle to their gol ttinment: They predicted better performnce when they thought the music would hurt rther thn help their performnce. Thus, when needed to overcome performnce obstcle, people set higher stndrds to motivte more gol striving. Notbly, this pttern of optimism resembles prediction effects ttributed to other nonmotivtionl mechnisms, such s the plnning fllcy (Buehler, Griffin, & Ross, 1.994), or generl optimism bises (Brown,1.986; Chmbers & Windschitl,20041, Kruger & Dunning,1999; Kund, 1,987). Predictions tht result from counterctive optimism, however, would hve motivtionlly functionl origins nd would therefore result only when high-order gols re thretened by low-order tempttions. Demonstrting this point, nother study (Zhng & Fishbch,2010) found tht optimistic predictions in the fce of more (vs. less) chllenging tsks ctully led to incresed effort investment on the more chllenging tsk. Anticipted obstcles lone, without n opportunity for prticipnts to mke performnce predictions, did not increse effort investment. Specificlly, prticipnts in this study expected to complete n ngrm tsk tht ws presented s either difficult or esy. Those who stted performnce predictions expected to do better when they nticipted difficult rther thn esy tsk. Consequently, they persisted longer. As in previous studies, we found tht prticipnts who nticipted obstcles ctully improved their performnce compred to prticipnts fces the sme level of chllenge but without nticipting n obstcle (or tempttion) in dvnce. Vohs indb /2010.,rO,O. rt I

13 256 COGNITIVE, PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND NEUROLOGICAL DIMENSIONS In nother study, we exmined whether counterctive optimism would mnifest when predicting risk likelihoods in the sme wy it did when setting performnce stndrds. To the extent tht more optimistic predictions (i.e., lower subjective risk levels) motivte prevention behviors tht cn reduce objective risk levels, they could be instrumentl in countercting tempttion-relted behvior nd encourging gol-relted behvior. In this study, prticipnts estimted their likelihood of suffering from high cholesterol, with the "knowledge" tht their gender ws either t lower risk (no obstcle) or higher risk (obstcle) of hving high cholesterol. 'When high cholesterol ws described s n cquired, reltively controllble disese, prticipnts mde more optimistic predictions in the presence of obstcles. Those who "lerned" tht their sex ws t higher risk thn the opposite sex, rther thn lower risk, predicted tht their own likelihood of ending up with high cholesterolws lower. Tken together, the strtegies described in this section revel n symmetric process of counterctive control. These strtegies generte n increse in the motivtionl strength of gols nd decrese in the motivtion strength of tempttions. They cn operte by modulting the ctul choice sitution, or mentl representtions of the choice sitution. They involve explicit, more plnned, nd effortful processes (see lso Murven & Bumeister,2000; Trope & Neter, 1994; Vohs, Bumeister, & Cirocco,2005), s well s n implicit mode of opertions tht is nonconscious nd requires fewer psychologicl resources. c0nclusl0ns Self-control is two-stge process. To succeed t gol pursuit, individuls fcing tempttions must first identify the conflict between those tempttions nd their gols. If, nd only if, they hve identified the conflict, they then hve the opportunity to drw on selfcontrol strtegies to promote gol pursuit. rwe hve described the conditions for identifying self-control conflict, nmely, width nd consistency. Conflict identifiction is more likely when person considers multiple opportunities to ct nd expects to mke consistent choices t ech opportunity. We further portryed the process of self-control s n symmetric response to gols nd tempttions, such tht self-control strtegies either increse the motivtionl strength of gols or decrese tht of tempttions. One impliction of our model is the etiologicl distinction between the filure to identify self-control problem nd the filure to exercise self-control. One cn only fil t exercising self-control per se if one ttempts to resist tempttion. We believe tht lrge proportion of the vrince in pprent self-control success depends on whether the individul ws ble to identify problem in the first plce. 'We therefore cll for more thorough investigtion of the vribles tht influence identifiction. Our model further offers remedies for overindulgence nd lck of self-control employment. \7e suggest tht individuls should strive to identify potentil self-control conflicts even before exercising self-control strtegies. For exmple, the dieter fced with the opportunity to indulge should think bout similr, future consumption opportunities nd void thinking bout the opportunity s unique or specil. Similrly, the smoker should not consider the question of hving one cigrette lone but consider insted the prospect of regulrly smoking, to ctivte self-control strtegies ssocited with quitting. In ddition, eductors nd o Vohs indb :10:43 PM

14 ldentifying nd Bttling Tempttion 257 policymkers should consider mesures tht promote interrelted decision frmes, nd tht discourge the presenttion of potentil tempttions s specil opportunities. In terms of exercising self-control, it is useful to consider how ech self-control opertion cn ct on both the gols nd the tempttions. It is possible tht cting on one of these elements is t times more dptive nd executble thn cting on the other. For exmple, reserch on thought suppression (e.g., lfegner, 1989) suggests tht inhibiting tempttions my be hrder tsk overll thn ctivting concepts relted to the overriding gols. It follows then tht self-regultors my be better off directing efforts towrd focusing on their gols rther thn inhibiting tempttions. It is lso possible tht mking penlties contingent on giving in to tempttions is more effective thn mking rewrds contingent on gol dherence, becuse people re more verse to prospective losses thn to gins (e.g., Khnemn & TVersky, 1979). Our reserch on implicit self-control strtegies further rises the questions of when implicit strtegies ccompny more explicit ones, when they substitute for explicit strtegies, nd which tend to be more effective. Finlly, given the richness of self-control opertions tht individuls disply nd tht we hve documented in this review, it would be beneficil to study wht enbles self-control success s pth to better understnding why people so often fil. REFERENCES Arts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2000). Hbits s knowledge structures: Automticity in goldirected behvior. lournl of Personlity nd Socil Psycbology, TS(11, Ainslie, G. (1,992). Picoeconomics: The strtegic interction of successiue motiutionl sttes within the person. Cmbridge, UK: Cmbridge University Press. Ariely, D., &'Wertenbroch,K.(2002). Procrstintion, dedlines, nd performnce: Self control by precommi tment. P s y cb o lo gi c l S ci en ce, 13 (3), Aronson, E. (1997). The theory of cognitive dissonnce: The evolution nd vicissitudes of n ide. In C. McGrty & S. A. Hslm (Eds.), The messge of socil psychology: Perspectiues on mind in society (pp ). Cmbridge, MA: Blckwell. Atkinson, J.W., & Fether, N. T. (1966). A tbeory of chieuement motiution New York: STiley. Bndur, A. (1989). Self-regultion of motivtion nd ction through internl stndrds nd gol systems. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Gol concepts in personlity nd socil psychology (pp ). Hillsdle, NJ: Erlbum. Brgh, J. A., Chiken, S., Govender, R., & Prtto, F. ( The generlity of the utomtic ttitude ctivtion effect. lournl of Personlity nd Socil Psychology, 62(6), Brgh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chi, A., Brndollr, K., 6{ Troetschel, R. (2001). The utomted will: Unconscious ctivtion nd pursuit of behviorl gols. Journl of Personlity n d S o ci l P sy ch ology, 81 (6 r, Bumeister, R. F., Brtslvsky, E., Murven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego-depletion: Is the ctive selflimitedresource? JournlofPersonlityndSocilPsychology,T4(5), Beckmnn, J., & Kuhl, J. (1985). Action Control: From Cognition to Behuior. Berlin, Germny: Springer-Verlg. Brehm, J. W. (1956). Postdecision chnges in the desirbility of lterntives. Journl of Abnorml nd Socil Psychology, 52, Brehm, I. W. (1,966). A theory of psychologicl rectnce. New York: Acdemic Press. Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. A. (1989). The intensity of motivtion. Annul Reuiew of Psychology, 40, I uon"'noo,.t S:fOr ev I

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