A2 Level Sociology. Sociological Theory and Methods. Miss Sakine Koc

Transcription

1 A2 Level Scilgy Scilgical Thery and Methds Miss Sakine Kc

2 Sectin ONE: Curse utline Candidates shuld examine the fllwing areas, which are als studied at AS Level: Quantitative and qualitative methds f research; their strengths and limitatins; research design. Surces f data, including questinnaires, interviews, bservatin (participant and nnparticipant), experiments, dcuments, and fficial statistics; the strengths and limitatins f these surces. The distinctin between primary and secndary data, and between quantitative and qualitative data. The relatinship between psitivism, Interpretivism and scilgical methds; the nature f scial facts. The theretical, practical and ethical cnsideratins influencing chice f tpic, chice f methd(s) and the cnduct f research. A2 candidates shuld als: Demnstrate a wider range and greater depth f knwledge and understanding than at AS Level. Study the nature f scilgical thught and methds f scilgical enquiry in greater range and depth, and demnstrate mre highly develped skills f applicatin, analysis, interpretatin and evaluatin than at AS Level. Sectin TWO: In additin, A2 candidates shuld examine: Cnsensus, cnflict, structural and scial actin theries. The cncepts f mdernity and pst-mdernity in relatin t scilgical thery. The nature f science and the extent t which scilgy can be regarded as scientific. The relatinship between thery and methds. Debates abut subjectivity, bjectivity and value freedm. The relatinship between scilgy and scial plicy.

3 Sectin ONE: Cntent yu are expected t knw frm AS Level

4 Methdlgical Perspectives t Scilgical Research Methds There are tw methdlgical perspectives t Scilgical research; Psitivism Interpretivism. Psitivism Aim Key writer Scientific quantitative methdlgy statistics. Develped by Durkheim. Sciety and scial reality (what Durkheim calls scial facts ) have an bjective nature as it exits independent and external t the individual. Main assumptins This is the idea that human behaviur is shaped by external stimuli (things that happen t us) rather than internal stimuli (what ges n in ur mind). Scial facts, accrding t Durkheim, can be expressed in statistics which can be analysed and understd in the same way scientist s study the natural wrld since they exists in casual relatinships that can be empirically bserved, tested and measured. Thus, we can nly study bjective facts that we can bserve, NOT emtins, meanings and mtives as they are subjective. Fr Durkheim there are tw imprtant steps t cnsider befre beginning a research: Hw t research sciety and peple Type f research methd they prefer t use 1) Disregard all precnceptins abandn yur persnal ideas and be neutral. 2) Treat scial facts as things nly study external bjective facts nt internal subjective thughts. This way studies can be replicated by different investigatrs but shuld prduce the same results. Field experiments (take place in natural settings) and questinnaires. 1) Scial facts are difficult t identify bjectively as its meanings can differ amng bservers. E.g. crime has different meaning fr criminals, plice, curts, and criminlgist. Limitatins 2) Causal relatinships between scial facts and their effects n individuals are assumed by the researcher rather than directly bserved. 3) Ignres inter-subjective meanings f acts since laws (scial facts) dn t always reflect peple in sciety. E.g. Capital punishment is frbidden in the UK but a pll fund high supprt fr it.

5 Interpretivism Aim Interpretive and qualitative methdlgy wrds and detail. Key writer Develped by Weber. Rejects psitivism - They dn t think human being can be studied using the same methds f natural science because such methds can nly describe peple's actins but scilgists dn't just want descriptins they want reasns. Interpretivism argues peple d nt simply react t external stimuli BUT interpret the meaning f stimuli befre reacting. Thus, we need t understand peple s unbservable subjective states which cannt be measured by statistics. Main assumptins Weber argued scial reality is mre cmplex than Durkheim suggests because yu can never btain bjectivity as facts are a prduct f subjective interpretatin (e.g. the research we pick t study and hw t investigate it is influenced by the researcher s experiences). Weber argues we need t study scial actin t understand why peple behave in particular ways. Thus, data has t be interpreted by extracting meaning frm bservatin since statistics can t speak fr themselves. Symblic Interactinism later added individuals maintain images f themselves that are shaped by the reactin f ther. Labelling thery scial wrld is first classified (labelled by steretypes r cmmn sense) befre it can be measured. They seek t understand this prcess f labelling and the affect it has n peple. Hw t research sciety and peple Interpretivism advcates Value freedm which is the idea that researchers shuld nt allw their persnal beliefs and ideas (values) t affect data cllectin and analysis. Type f research methd they prefer t use In-depth interviews and participant bservatins. 1) Overemphasizes and assumes individuals cnsciusly attach meaning t their actins which can put acrss a narrw view f what cnstitutes scial actin. Limitatins 2) Value freedm is impssible and un-scilgical since scilgists react t plitical, ecnmic and scial events. 3) Research prcess is all value ridden e.g. the tpic we pick t study, hw we research it and analyse it. In practice mst scilgists use bth Psitivist and Interpretivist s methds: mst psitivists use sme interpretatin in their research and mst Interpretivists use sme scial facts in their research. Thus, disputes between the tw traditins have becme less cmmn tday. Chsing a research methd

6 Types f data There are tw types f data which Scilgists cmmnly use: 1. Primary and secndary data. 2. Quantitative and qualitative data. Primary vs. Secndary surces f data Primary surces data cllected by Scilgists themselves thrugh research. Includes the use f varius research methds including: Experiments Scial surveys Questinnaires Interviews Participant bservatin Secndary surces data that is pre-existing/ cllected by smene else. E.g. Official statistics r persnal dcuments like phts, dairies, letters etc. Quantitative and Qualitative data Quantitative Qualitative Objective T quantify data and generalise results frm a sample t the ppulatin f interest. T measure the incidence f varius views and pinins in a chsen sample. Smetimes fllwed by qualitative research which is used t explre sme findings further. Scial reality has a specific meaning and relevance structure fr peple living, thinking and acting within it. Thus, any attempt t understand scial reality must be grunded in peple s experience f that scial reality. Seeks t describe and analyse the culture and behaviur f humans and their grups frm the pint f view f thse being studied. T gain an understanding f underlying reasns and mtivatins. T prvide insights int the setting f a prblem, generating ideas and/r hyptheses fr later quantitative research. T uncver prevalent trends in thught and pinin. Sample Usually a large number f cases representing the ppulatin f interest. Randmly selected respndents. Usually a small number f nn-representative cases. Respndents selected t fulfil a given quta. Data Cllectin Structured techniques such as nline questinnaires, n-street r telephne interviews. Unstructured r semi-structured techniques e.g. individual depth interviews, grup discussins r participant bservatins.

7 Data Analysis Statistical data is usually in the frm f tabulatins (tabs). Findings are cnclusive and usually descriptive in nature. Nn- statistical. Data analysis is interpretive which means it s a matter f the researcher s judgement. It seeks t explre the attitudes, behaviurs and experiences f peple t gain in-depth understanding. Outcme Used t recmmend a final curse f actin. Explratry and/r investigative. Findings are nt cnclusive and cannt be used t make generalisatins abut the ppulatin f interest. Develp an initial understanding and sund base fr further decisin making. Advantages Easy t cnduct and measure and analyse data and results cause and effect results are btained. Filters ut external factrs s results are unbiased. Results can be generalised t the wider public. Objective results hard data Desn t matter wh cnducts the research findings shuld be similar Useful during early stages f a study when the researcher may be unsure f exactly what will be studied r what t fcus n fcus grups. Desn t need a strict research design plan befre it begins which gives the researcher freedm t let the study unfld mre naturally. Detailed and rich data is cllected in the frm f cmprehensive written descriptins r visual evidence which lks at cntext and scial meaning and hw it affects individuals. Studies peple in their natural setting which means results are clser t reality. Disadvantages Ignres peple s interpretatin f the wrld arund the meaning things have fr different peple. Thus, it is t simplistic. Highly reliant n statistics which dn t always reflect sciety. Cntext f the study is ignred as it des nt study peple in their natural setting. Hard t always gather a large sample f the ppulatin; the larger the sample f peple researched, the mre statistically accurate the results will be. T subjective as the researcher is heavily invlved in the research prcess which can influence their view f the study. Mrever, sft data is prduced as results are interpreted accrding t researchers wn bias thus, nt reliable as there are prblems with validity and generalisatin Time cnsuming and expensive as interviews last at least an hur per persn and can g n fr mnths r years. Quantitative Vs. Qualitative which wrks best? Neither methd f research is better than the ther. They are different and bth have their strengths and weaknesses. They way t decide which ne is best suited t a study depends n the purpse f the research itself and what it seeks t accmplish.

8 Can Primary and Secndary surces f data verlap with Quantitative and Qualitative methds? YES! Quantitative Qualitative Primary surce Questinnaires Structured interviews Participant bservatin Unstructured interviews Secndary surce Official statistics Letters, newspapers, articles, pictures etc.

9 Factrs influencing chice f methds Varius factrs influence a Scilgists chice f methd. The mst cmmn are: Practical issues Ethical issues Theretical issues Chice f tpic

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11 Research Methd One; Experiments Experiments are mre cmmnly used in Psychlgy and the Natural sciences. It invlves testing the behaviur f participants and cmparing results f tw grups; The Experimental Grup is expsed t the cnditins f the experiment. The Cntrl Grup is NOT expsed t the cnditins f the experiment and are nt infrmed f this. In shrt, they are the placeb grup. Lgic f experiments is fr scientists t manipulate variables in which they are interested t discver what effects they have. This methd allws the researcher t develp a cause and effect relatinship t predict r prevent future ccurrences f behaviur. Experiments are mstly used by Psitivist s since they favur scientific analysis. Evaluatin f Experiments 1. Reliability Experiments increase reliability as they are easy t replicate by different researchers since there are certain steps and envirnmental cnditins t fllw and variables t manipulate. 2. Practical prblems Sciety is cmplex and the scial wrld is nt easy t identify let alne manipulate it. E.g. if we wanted t study classrm interactin between 16 year lds is it best t bserve them in a schl r create an artificial classrm setting? Labratry experiments cannt be used t study the past and cmpare scial trends t cntemprary sciety. Can nly study a small sample which may nt be representative f the whle ppulatin. 3. Ethical prblems Researcher requires infrmed cnsent frm research participants. Hwever, this can be difficult t btain frm sme grups like children r peple with learning difficulties wh may nt fully understand the purpse f the experiment. Prblems regarding the deceptin f participants since utlining the dull purpse f the research can lead t scial desirability bias. E.g. Milgram s study f bedience. Experiments can als cause physical r psychlgical harm t participants depending n the nature f activities invlved.

12 4. Scial desirability bias A labratry is nt a natural envirnment. Thus, any behaviur within it can als be artificial since participants will try t guess what the study is abut and act in the way they think the researcher may want them t behave. 5. Free will Assumes human actin is deterministic like thse f animals and plants and can be studied in the same way as natural sciences. Ignres free will and cmplex nature f human actin. Tw alternatives t the labratry experiments 1. Field experiments Takes place in the participant s natural setting rather than an artificial labratry setting. Participants are nt usually aware they are being studied t reduce scial desirability bias. The researcher manipulates ne r tw f the variables in the situatin t see what effect it has n participants. E.g. Rsenthal and Jacbsn s study f labelling in schls. Evaluatin Ethical issues infrmed cnsent are nt btained and invlve deceptin. Difficult t gain access int a participant s natural setting. E.g. criminal gangs Difficult t always manipulate variables in ne s natural setting. 2. The Cmparative Methd This invlves determining a cause and effect relatinship by identifying tw grups that are alike, besides the ne variable we are interested in, and cmparing the tw grups tgether t determine causality. Thus, a real study des nt even have t be cnducted. A scilgist can simply cmpare the behaviur f tw grups using existing primary r secndary data. E.g. Durkheim s study f suicide where he studied why different grups are mre likely t cmmit suicide by lking at fficial statistics cllected by crners. This methd avids: 1) an artificial setting, 2) can be used t study the past. 3) n ethical issues. Evaluatin Less cntrl ver variable. Thus cause and effect can be difficult t determine.

13 Research Methd Tw; Scial Surveys Scial surveys can be administered in tw ways: Written questinnaires which respndents cmplete and return in persn, pst r . Interviews either face-t-face r ver the telephne. Varius steps need t be taken befre a scial survey can be administered t respndents: 1. Chse a tpic While surveys are used by Scilgists t study a wide variety f issues, it is nt a suitable methd fr all tpics. E.g. histrical tpics. 2. Frmulate an aim r hypthesis Aim: statement which identifies what a scilgist intends t study. E.g. t cllect data n gender and educatin. Hypthesis: mre specific than the aim. It is a pssible explanatin that can be tested by cllected evidence t prve it true r false. E.g. t test whether girls utperfrm bys at Duff Miller acrss all A- Level subjects. Bth give the researcher directin n hw t investigate their research, particularly the latter. 3. Select the types f questins yu will ask All types f surveys, whether interviews r questinnaires require questins. Such questins can be asked in tw specific ways; 1. Clsed-ended questins respndent chses frm pssible answers. E.g. yes, n, dn t knw r multiple chice ptins. 2. Open-ended questins respndent is free t express their pinin as they please.

14 Clsed-ended questins Open-ended questins Advantages Respnses are easy t analyse and cmpare. Easy t replicate. Easy t cmplete fr interviewers and interviewees. Are mre specific, thus mre likely t cmmunicate similar issues. Higher respnse rate than pen questin surveys. Allws respndent t express themselves in their wn wrds, reducing interviewer + scial desirability bias. They can be used in a pilt study t frmulate clsed questins. Respndents will nly answer if they knw the answer as ppsed t picking anything frm a list. Disadvantages N flexibility in respnses increasing investigatr bias. Increases scial desirability bias. Nt always necessary. E.g. which state where yu brn in? Requires greater effrt frm the respndent. Times cnsuming and expensive since replies are cntradictry, incmprehensible r irrelevant. Different interviewers may recrd the different answer. Respnses are varied which means lw reliability. 4. Operatinalise cncepts Befre we can frmulate research questins, a Scilgist has t cnceptualise and peratinalise their ideas. Cnceptualisatin invlves the prcess f identifying cncepts that will be examined. E.g. teacher speech, bdy language, eye cntact with students t assess teacher expectatins. Operatinalizatin invlves the prcess f breaking dwn cncepts int questins which can be measured. E.g. hw d yu encurage/mtivate students with lw self-esteem? 5. Cnduct a pilt study A pilt study is a small scale trial study that is carried ut. This is dne prir t the main study t test that there are n flaws in the methdlgy f the main research. E.g. practise interviews r a draft questinnaire. 6. Select a sample The purpse f sampling is t ensure that peple chsen fr the study are representative f the research ppulatin r grup we are interest in. This was results can be generalised t a wider ppulatin.

15 The Sampling Frame T select a sample we first need a sampling frame. This is a list f all the members f the ppulatin we are interested in. E.g. using schl registers/data base t select the apprpriate students fr a study. Sampling Techniques Belw is a list f all the representative sampling techniques, mstly used in quantitative research: Sampling Technique Hw it wrks Advantage Disadvantage Randm Sampling Quasi- Randm Sampling Simplest technique, where the sample is selected purely by randm chance. E.g. names drawn frm a hat. Similar t randm sampling. In this case every tenth r hundredth name is selected rather than any randm ne. Representative sampling planning is pssible. Researchers can specify the size f the sample. Pssible t estimate extent t which sample findings are likely t differ frm the ppulatin. Expensive and time cnsuming. Always a chance that the sample selected is nt truly representative. Stratified Randm Sampling Ppulatin is divided int a number f parts r 'strata' accrding t characteristics chsen, like sex, ethnicity r age. A randm sample is then drawn frm each stratum and these are then put tgether. Ensures a gd crss selectin f the ppulatin mre precise than randm sampling. Nt necessary fr the sample t reflect cmpsitin f the ppulatin which saves time and is a gd measure. Can be used in mre cmplex studies where randm sampling will be difficult & time cnsuming. Cmplex t rganise and difficult t analyse results. Nt useful with nnhmgenus subgrups. Requires accurate infrmatin abut the ppulatin, r can prduce bias. Allws different sampling techniques t be used fr different subppulatins. Quta Sampling Similar t Stratified Randm Sampling. But instead f chsing the samples fr each stratum randmly, the researcher ges ut t lk fr the right number f each srt f persn required fr each categry. E.g. 500 men and 250 wmen. Grantees inclusin f diverse ppulatin and prprtins in which they ccur in the ppulatin. Widely used in pinin plls as it prduces clse t reality statistics. Quicker and cheaper than randm sampling. Peple may be unwilling t reveal persnal details t see if they fit int a quta categry. Peple in a given quta have an accidental chance f being selected fr the study which isn t representative. Belw is a list f all the nn-representative sampling techniques, mstly used in qualitative research: Sampling Technique Hw it wrks Advantage Disadvantage Opprtunity Sampling Smetimes called accidental, r cnvince sampling, invlves chsing individuals wh are easy t access. E.g. Studying first 100 men willing t take part. Fast and cheap. Gd fr small scale studies, like studying yur cllage r lcal hspital. Nt representative. Usually avided if a mre satisfactry alternative is available. Many biases ccur in such sampling prcedure and there is n way t evaluate such bias.

16 Snwball Sampling This is a multistage sampling prcedure in which a small initial grup is selected, snwballs, wh then intrduce the researcher t ther ptential members f the ppulatin that can take part. This way sample size increases. Gd t use when members are difficult t reach Sample size increases withut much wrk being dne by the researcher t find participants. Netwrks cnnecting participants means the study becmes less representative. Nt representative when it cmes t larger grups f peple wh are nt difficult t reach. 7. Decide whether it face t face, pstal, nline survey Varius way t cnduct surveys, particularly questinnaires. A researcher can select frm using nline, pstal r face-t-face questins. Interviews can als be cnducted nline ver skype. This gives researchers the flexibility f studying participants abrad withut incurring high csts. 8. Cnduct survey and analyse data Once all the research preparatin is cmpleted. The survey is given t the sample ppulatin t cmplete. Once this stage is ver, it is the rle f the Scilgist t analyse the data cllected t try and understand why peple behave in certain ways (Interpretivists) r lk fr statistical relatinships (Psitivism).

17 Research Methd Three; Questinnaires Questinnaires are a list f a research r survey questins asked t respndents, as it is designed t extract specific infrmatin frm them abut a particular tpic. There are different ways t administer questinnaires; nline, pst r face-t-face. Advantages Practical advantages Quick and cheap means f cllecting data. A Large sample can be used. Data is easy t cmpare, analyse and evaluate. N need t recruit and train researchers. Reliability Easy t replicate and check fr reliability. Hypthesis Testing Useful fr testing hypthesis as it established cause and effect relatinship between different variables. Detachment and bjectivity Psitivists argue questinnaires enable bjectivity as the researcher is kept external t the research prcess. This is particularly the case fr pstal and nline questinnaires. Representativeness Since questinnaires can gather infrmatin frm a large sample, the results are subsequently mre representative f the wider ppulatin. Ethical issues Questinnaires pse fewer ethical prblems than mst research methds. Hwever, while sme questinnaires can be intrusive r sensitive, respndents dn t have t answer them Disadvantages Practical prblems Data tends t be limited and superficial since respndents are unlikely t cmplete and return lng and time cnsuming questinnaires. Respnse rate Lw respnse rate, particularly amng certain members f sciety. E.g. parents r full time wrkers which create a bias sample since mst respndents are unemplyed r scially islated. Pstal and nline questinnaires particularly have lw respnse rates. Inflexibility Once questins are finalised they are difficult t change r ask fllw up questins. Thus a narrw area is explred. Detachment Interpretivists argue questinnaires lack validity and d nt give a true picture f what s being studied since research. Lying, frgetting and scial desirability bias Prblems with validity arise as respndents may fail t prvide a crrect answer, frget, nt knw r understand the questin. Scial desirability bias can als ccur, where the researcher gives a respnse t please the researcher. Impsing the researchers meanings Questinnaires ignre meaning and experiences f respndents as questins are drawn by the researcher. This is particularly the case fr clsed questins which allws n flexibility.

18 Research Methd Fur; Interviews Interviewing is a research methd in which the researcher asks questins rally and recrds the respndent's answers. Interviewing is typically dne face-t-face, but can als be dne via telephne. Interviews are usually ne-t-ne but can als be grup nes t. There are tw key types f interviews: Structured Interviews strict set f questins fr the interviewer t ask and respndent t answer. Unstructured interviews are guided cnversatins. Interviewer is free t ask any questins. Semi-Structured Interviews lies between the tw abve extremes abve. The interviewer has set questins but als scpe t ask additinal prbing questins. Structured Interviews Advantages Practical issues Training interviewers is straightfrward and inexpensive since they have t fllw a set f given instructins. Hwever, this methd is mre cstly than pstal questinnaires. A larger number f participants can be studied in cmparisn t unstructured interviews. Suitable t gather factual infrmatin. E.g. age r ccupatin. Results are easy t cmpare and analyse as questins are clsed ended. Respnse Rate Higher respnse rates than questinnaires. Researcher can increase respnse rate by calling back participants. Disadvantages Validity Little pprtunity fr participant t explain questins in depth r clarify misunderstandings. Scial desirability bias Respndents may pick ne f the multiple chice answers t avid lking stupid. They can als lie and exaggerate respnses. Inflexible Can result in interviewer bias as questins reflect the cncerns and pririties f researcher rather than the participant. Reliability Easy t replicate as it uses same questins in the same rder. Validity Valid data due t its use f clse ended questins.

19 Unstructured Interviews Advantages Rapprt and sensitivity Interviewer is likely t build a rapprt with interviewee, putting them at ease and encuraging them t be truthful; avids scial desirability bias. Gd fr sensitive tpics. E.g. dmestic vilence. Flexibility N set questins, allwing participants the flexibility t draw n issues/ideas they believe are imprtant, thereby reducing Interviewer bias. Checking understanding Researchers have the pprtunity t ask questins when unsure, rather than select a multiple ptin. Explring unfamiliar tpics Enable researchers t explre an under researched area and can be fr pilt studies. Disadvantages Practical prblems Interviews are time cnsuming, limiting the number f participants that can be studied. Representative Small sample is btained, in cmparisn t structured interviews, which means there is a higher chance f it being un-representative f wider ppulatin. Harder t make valid generalisatins. Reliability Difficult t replicate the research and cmpare results. Validity Rapprt develped between interviewer and interviewee can distrt data btained; thereby leading t a lack f validity. Semi-Structured Interviews Advantages Obtains relevant data and allws flexibility fr researcher t bring up additinal infrmatin. Its structured aspect enables cmparative analysis. Can be used fr sensitive tpics. Disadvantages Time cnsuming and resurce intensive. Can't guarantee hnesty f participants. Flexibility f interview may lessen reliability. Difficult t cmpare and analyse answers. Grup Interviews Advantages Participants feel mre cmfrtable in grup interviews than ne-t-ne. Thus they are mre likely t pen up. Grup discussins stimulate individual thught, enabling rich in-depth data. Useful methd t generate initial ideas fr a fllw up research. Disadvantages One r tw individuals may dminate discussin. Researcher must keep grup fcused at all times. Peer grup pressure can affect respnses. Data generated is difficult t analyse.

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21 Research Methd Five; Participant Observatin Types f Observatins There are tw way t distinguish between bservatins: 1. Nn-participant bservatin - researcher bserves the grup r event withut taking part. E.g. Ofsted inspectins. Vs. Participant bservatin researcher actually takes part in the event r everyday life f grup while bserving it simultaneusly. 2. Overt bservatins when researcher reveals their true identity. Vs. Cvert bservatins - when researchers cnceal their true identify and take n a fake identity instead. Cnducting a participant bservatin Tw issues t address when cnducting an bservatin: 1. Getting access in, staying in and getting ut f the grup being studied. 2. Whether t use vert r cvert bservatins. Gaining Access Sme grups are easier t jin than thers. E.g. criminal gang vs. ftball crwd. Making cntact dependent upn the researcher s persnal skills, cnnectins, r even pure chance. Acceptance t retain entry researchers must be trusted and accepted by the grup that they jin. Hwever, this is smetimes dependent n variables they cannt cntrl like gender, sexuality and ethnicity. E.g. a Muslim cannt jin EDL. Observers rle researcher shuld nt disrupt the grups nrmal activity nr ffer their pinins n issues. Staying In In rder t retain their rle, researcher has t participate t an extent, particularly if it is cvert research. Ging native by ver-identifying with the grup the researcher culd becme bias. If this ccurs they lse bjectivity and simply becme a member f the grup. Mrever, the lnger an bserver stays in a grup, the less likely they are t bserve unusual events r actins ntewrthy. Getting Out Leaving a grup is usually easier than jining, but this is nt always the case fr cvert research. E.g. trying t leave a criminal gang. Researcher can als find it difficult t adjust t their rdinary life if they stay in fr t lng.

22 Overt Observatins Advantages Avids the ethical prblem f nt btaining infrmed cnsent and cllecting data thrugh deceptin. Allws researchers t ask naïve but imprtant questins a cvert researcher wuldn t be able t. The bserver can penly take ntes and wuldn t be affected by hindsight. Disadvantages Grups can refuse permissin fr bservatins. E.g. criminal gangs r plice frce. Can lead t scial desirability bias r the hawthrne effect in which participants change behaviur knwing they are being bserved. Can lead t interviewer effect and bias t. Quick and simple t carry ut in cmparisn t cvert bservatins. Researcher can be pen in what they are interested and why. Cvert Observatins Advantages Enables researchers t study grups which cannt be easily accessed in their natural setting. E.g. criminal grups. Avids scial desirability bias r the hawthrne effect as participants are nt aware they are being bserved t alter behaviur. Avids interviewer bias. Disadvantages Practical Prblems Requires the researcher t keep up an act. There is always risk f their cver being blwn. Scilgist cannt nte take penly and can experience prblems with hindsight when trying t recall infrmatin. Ethical Issues Infrmed cncept is nt gained, and n tp f it participants are deceived. Psychlgical harm can be caused t participants upn finding ut the true identity f researcher. Researchers have t lie abut their reasns t leave the grup. Researchers can participate in immral r illegal activities. Even if they witness it, they have a mral/legal duty t intervene.

23 Participant Observatin Advantages Practical advantages Smetimes participant bservatin may be the nly way t study a grup. E.g. deviant grups. Researchers can build rapprt with participants and gain answers which reflect the truth the mst in cmparisn t ther methds. Flexibility The mst flexible apprach in cmparisn t all the ther research methds. It allws researcher t discver things ther methds may have verlked. Insight Participant bservatin allws the researcher t gain empathy and thereby understand participant s experiences better. Validity Increases validity since peple are studied in their natural setting, rather than via an artificial questinnaire r lab experiment. Disadvantages Practical disadvantages Time cnsuming and expensive since researchers need t be fully trained befre bservatins can begin. It can be persnal stressful and demanding fr researcher. Persnal characteristics like gender, age and ethnicity can have an impact n certain grups studied. Ethical prblems Cvert bservatins bring up serius ethical issues, frm deceptin t psychlgical harm f participants. Representativeness Small grups can nly be studied in bservatins which mean results gathered are nt representative t wider sciety. Reliability Observatins are difficult t replicate since each bservatin is unique. Thus, results are nt reliable. Bias, lack f bjectivity and Validity The term ging native implies btaining bjectivity is difficult. Thus, results reflect the subjectivity f the researcher and are nt valid accrding t Psitivists.

24 Secndary Surces Secndary Surces Quantitative Research Official statistics Nn-fficial statistics Existing quantitative research Official Statistics Official statistics are quantitative data gathered by the gvernment r ther fficial bdies. E.g. Natinal census cnducted every ten years f UK ppulatin. Tw ways t cllect fficial statistics: 1. Registratin when registering smene r fr smething. E.g. Birth r t schl. 2. Official surveys e.g. Natinal census r schl surveys. Qualitative Research Existing quantitative scilgical research. Public dcuments. Persnal dcuments. Histrical dcuments. Advantages Disadvantages Practical reasns It allws cmparisn between different grups and trends ver time. Saves time and mney. Statistics may nt always be prvided fr each research area. Statistical trends can t always explain the reasns behind actins. Definitins are subjective which means fficial stats are nt bjective. E.g. crime has a different meaning fr the plice, curts, criminal and criminlgist. Representative Official stats cver a large prprtin f the ppulatin and are thus mre representative f wider sciety. E.g. census. Nt all fficial stats are representative. E.g. British Crime Survey r General Husehld Survey is nt cmpulsry fr citizens t cmplete and return, unlike the UK census. Reliability Official stats are reliable as they can be easily replicated t reprduce similar results. Hwever, they may nt always be reliable if participants dn t make it clear which ptin they selected r researcher cmputing data can als make errrs. Validity; the dark figure On the whle fficial stats that gather hard data like ppulatin size, marriage r divrce rates generate valid data. Hwever, sft data like plice r schl stats are all based n interpretatin and are nt always valid subsequently. Psitivism Interpretivism Marxism Official statistics and idelgy; They prefer fficial statistics as it reflects Scial facts. It can be measured bjectively. Data can be analysed and cmpared t find cause and affect relatinships. Can be used t test a hypthesis. Official statistics lack validity since everything in sciety is scially cnstructed. Objectivity is impssible since everything is based n meaning and interpretatin. Official statistics serve the interest f capitalists. It reflects their needs and thus lacks validity as it is a prduct f scial cnstructin rather than a real reflectin f the truth.

25 Dcuments Dcuments refer t any written text, like persnal diaries, gvernment reprts, medical recrds, newspapers etc. 1. Public and Persnal Dcuments Public dcuments created by rganisatins like gvernment bdies, schls, welfare agencies etc. These dcuments may be available fr researchers t use. E.g. Ofsted reprts, schl website, prspectus, textbks etc Persnal dcuments - includes letters, diaries, pht albums, autbigraphies etc. These are first persn accunts f scial events and experiences which can be used t reveal meaning. E.g. ntes written by students, hmewrk, graffiti n schl building/prperty, etc. 2. Histrical Dcuments These are persnal and public dcuments created in the past. Such dcuments allw us t study the past by als t draw cmparative analyse with the present. 3. Cntent Analysis Is a methd used t analyse the cntent f dcuments, usually used t study dcuments prduced by the media, such as adverts and magazines. Althugh dcuments are qualitative, this methd helps t generate quantitative data. Steps taken t cnduct a cntent analysis f the media: What categry t study - e.g. full time husewives. What surce t study them in e.g. TV r magazine? Cunt the number f times they appear and hw they are presented. Advantages; cheap, easy t access material, prduces bjective data that is scientific and quantitative. Questins t keep in mind when assessing dcuments: Authenticity is the dcument what it claims t be? Is it in tact? Is it missing pages r passages? Credibility wh was the authr? Culd we trust the surce? Representativeness des the evidence in the dcument reflect ther surces frm the time perid r is it fictin? Des it represent all grups in a given sciety r the minrity? Meaning researcher may need special skills t interpret the dcument. E.g. a freign language r understanding f wrds that culd change ver time. Advantages gives insight int the life f scial actrs, smetimes the nly surces f infrmatin t study the past, cheap, easy t gather and saves time. Dcuments Favur dcuments. Interpretivists Reject dcuments. Psitivists

26 Dcuments uphld validity, since they are nt written with research in mind thus reflecting the truth. It prvides qualitative data and gives insight int the authr s wrld and meanings. Lacks reliability, representativeness and generalisatin. Unreliable data since its subjective nt bjective. Interpreting dcuments impses the view f the researcher.

27 1. Case studies Other types f research Invlves a detailed examinatin f a single case. E.g. schls, family r wrkplace. Advantages Prvides a detailed insight int a particular grup, interactin r event. Can be used t study exceptinal and unique cases. E.g. fait schls. Can be used t test a thery r hypthesis. Limitatins Since it studies ne case in depth, it lacks reliability and representativeness which means results cannt be generalised. 2. Lngitudinal study Invlves a study which fllws the same sample fr an extended perid f time. E.g. prgress f 5 bys thrughut their time in educatin. Advantages Can trace develpment ver time rather than a snapsht view f the present. Enables researchers t draw cmparisn between grups ver time t identify different trends and causes. Limitatins Prblems can arise tracking the sample. E.g. change f phne number and address. Participants may chse t leave the study. Demgraphic changes in the ppulatin may mean the riginal sample is n lnger representative f the present ppulatin. Large amunt f data can be difficult t analyse and cstly t cllect. 3. Life histries Invlves cllecting and recrding individual experiences thrugh 1) autbigraphies and 2) semistructured r unstructured interviews. It is a qualitative methd that tries t understand hw individuals cnstruct and interpret the wrld. Advantage Rich insight int individual experiences. N researcher r scial desirability bias. Disadvantage Life interviews cnducted thrugh interviews are subject t interview and scial desirability bias. Time cnsuming. Very subjective data, nt representative r reliable.

28 Triangulatin Triangulatin is the use f mre than ne research methd when carrying ut a scilgical study, s different types f data can cmplement ne anther. Triangulatin is als used t increase the validity and reliability f a study. Triangulatin can take varius frms: 1. Investigatr Triangulatin invlves using different researchers t check fr investigatr bias. 2. Data Triangulatin invlves cllecting data at different time frm different peple in different places t check fr validity. It invlves cmbining primary and secndary data. 3. Methdlgical Triangulatin - takes tw frms: Within-Methd Triangulatin invlves using a variety f techniques within the same methd t check validity and reliability. E.g. pen and clsed questins within a questinnaire. Between-Methd Triangulatin refers t a cmbinatin f different techniques Advantages Advantage f ne methd cmpensates fr the disadvantages f anther. Studying frm different perspectives give a fuller picture. Qualitative and quantitative data can be btained Increases reliability and validity. Disadvantages It is time cnsuming Expensive!

29 Functinalism n Sciety Research Methds: supprts Psitivism (develped by Durkheim) and use f quantitative methds. What type f thery is it? 1) Cnflict vs. cnsensus 2) Structural r scial actin Cnsensus thery as it assumes there is scial slidarity and value cnsensus in sciety. Structural thery as it argues sciety r scial facts exists prir and independent t individuals and subsequently impacts their behaviur. Main assumptin f the thery Sciety is rganic as it wrks in the same way as the human bdy. All parts need t wrk tgether in rder fr sciety t wrk in harmny. E.g. if we remve educatin, sciety wuld be characterised by ignrance. All scieties need functinal prerequisites which are basic needs fr survival like fd, shelter and mney. E.g. family is needed t prvide primary scialisatin and ecnmic needs fr its members. Any aspect f sciety that is dysfunctinal is characterised by anmie (nrmlessness) - this ccurs when nrms and values r cllective cnscience breaks dwn. E.g. crime. Durkheim s assumptin (Synptic link) Durkheim believed sciety is characterised by scial facts ways f acting, thinking, feeling etc. He believed that scial facts exist prir and independent t individuals and culd therefre shape their individual mral cnsciusness. E.g. religin exists befre individuals and dictates hw they are t live their lives thrugh its custms and practises. All scieties need t be characterised by cllective cnscience. Hwever, this is less likely in mdern day scieties that experience egism. E.g. New Age Religins are breaking dwn and undermining the cllective cnscience prvided by religin. Hwever, Durkheim believed nce spiritual religin dies dwn in mdern scieties this functin f unity will be carried ut by civil religin. E.g. ftball. Parsn s assumptin (Synptic link) Parsns argued all scieties require value cnsensus and shared gals. He utlined fur necessary functinal prerequisites: 1. Adaptatin ecnmic system. 2. Gal attainment a gal set by the state. E.g. American Dream. 3. Integratin legal system t prevent cnflict. 4. Pattern maintenance maintenance f values taught thrugh different institutins. E.g. educatin teaches us universalistic values (based n

30 merit) rather than the particularistic values (ascribed status) given by ur family. It therefre bridges the gap between family and educatin. Mertn s assumptin (Synptic link) Mertn accepts that every sciety requires value cnsensus t wrk in harmny. Hwever, he als argues that fr harmny t exist, a sciety must place equal emphasis n its cultural gal and the legitimate means t btain in. e.g. educatin and hard wrk. When the latter is missing, it creates a situatin f anmie in which there are five respnses accrding t a persns scial structure: 1. Cnfrmity accept fal and means. 2. Innvatin (wrking class) accept the gal but reject the means. 3. Ritualism (lwer middle class) reject the gal but accept the means. 4. Retreatism - (drp uts) reject bth the gal and means. 5. Rebellin (revlutinaries) reject bth gal and means but seek t replace it with a new sciety. Strengths Recgnises imprtance f scial structure in impacting individual behaviur and sciety. Prvides and explanatin fr cnfrmity and scial stability in sciety. T deterministic assumes individuals have n free will ver their actins. Ignres cnflict in sciety. E.g. Lndn rits r War n Terrr. Assumes everyne in sciety shares the same nrms and values. Ignring grups, which actively reject it. E.g. Marxists. Limitatins Believes sciety functins fr the benefit f all, ignring marginalised grups. E.g. wmen, ethnic minrities, disabled etc. Can explain rapid scial change in sciety. E.g. 1960s sexual revlutin.

31 Marxism n Sciety Research Methds: rejects all existing research methds and advcates Marxists scientific analysis instead; What type f thery is it? 1) Cnflict vs. cnsensus 2) Structural r scial actin Cnflict thery as it assumes there is a cnflict between the burgeisie and prletariat caused by capitalism. Structural thery as it argues the ecnmy, which is at the base f sciety, impacts all ther superstructures; by which he means all scial institutins and individual life. Marx s thery is called Histrical Materialism which explains human histry in five stages: 1. Primitive Cmmunism hunter gather sciety everyne is EQUAL! 2. Slave Sciety master vs. slave. 3. Feudalism aristcracy vs. peasants. 4. Capitalism burgeisie vs. prletariat. 5. Cmmunism everyne is EQUAL nce again! Marx s main assumptin (Synptic link) Accrding t Marx all scieties, besides primitive cmmunism, is characterised by tw cmpeting classes. The ruling class in each sciety wns the means f prductin, while the wrking class sells their labur t the means f prductin. E.g. the burgeisie in capitalism extracts surplus value frm the prletariat by paying them a small value fr their labur. Wrkers are als alienated in varius ways t uphld their ppressin. E.g. they are cntrlled by managers, carry ut anti scial wrk and are made t prduce useless cmmdities. This results in false cnsciusness (unawareness f class explitatin). E.g. religin acts as a frm f false cnsciusness by wrking as the pium f the peple. Marx believed that this ppressin was upheld due t the base vs. superstructure relatinship. This suggests that the ecnmy is at the base f sciety and determines hw all ther superstructures (like religin, family, educatin and crime) are run. The superstructures in effect justify and uphld the ecnmic system. E.g. educatin is determined by the capitalist ecnmic system as it teaches children thrugh the hidden curriculum t be bedient students s that they are prepared t be bedient within the wrkplace t. Marx believed that thrugh the educatin f his thery, the prletariat wuld eventually develp class-cnsciusness and cnduct a revlutin in the name f the peple t establish an equal cmmunist sciety.

32 Gramsci Ne- Marxism s assumptin (Synptic link) Gramsci revised Marx s thery regarding the base vs. superstructure relatinship arguing that it des nt wrk as rigidly as Marx argued, but rather that there is relative autnmy between the tw aspects f sciety. Thus, while the base affected the superstructure, the same is true vice versa. E.g. Liberatin Thelgy, in Latin America, where Marxists and Cathlic bishps jined frces t challenge dictatrships, shws hw religin, as a superstructure, culd challenge the ecnmic base. Gramsci als develped the cncept f hegemny, which refers t the dminance f ruling class ideas ver ther grups in sciety and the acceptance f the prletariat ver these ideas. E.g. the family cntinuusly teaches children t accept the nrm f values f capitalism withut realising that it is its enemy. Althusser Develped tw key cncepts: 1. Repressive state apparatus refers t the states use f cntrl thrugh law and rder, the army, plice, curts and prisn. 2. Idelgical state apparatus refers t agencies and institutins in sciety, which are respnsible fr transferring the ideas f the ruling class t the peple. Recgnises the imprtance f the ecnmy in impacting scial life. E.g. times f recessin r ecnmic bms. Strengths It prvides an explanatin fr cnflict in sciety. Remains a highly influential thery, which has had significant impact n wrld histry. E.g. Cld War. Marx s predicatin f the five stages did nt cme true. E.g. Even in Russia where Marxism was advcated, they skipped the phase f capitalism, jumping frm feudalism t cmmunism. Limitatins It ver empathises cnflict in sciety, ignring harmny accrding t Functinalism. The base vs. superstructure relatinship is t deterministic, ignring individual free will.

33 Max Weber n Sciety Research Methds develped Interpretivism and advcates qualitative methds. What type f thery is it? 1) Cnflict vs. cnsensus 2) Structural r scial actin Cnflict thery as it assumes there is cnflict between different scial classes and status grups in sciety. Bth a structural and a scial actin thery as he believes sciety has an impact upn individual behaviur but that individuals can als change sciety. E.g. Martin Luther King. Max Weber s Main assumptin (Synptic link) Accrding t Weber, scial actin has meaningful existence and shuld be used when studying and understanding sciety. T understand scial actin we need t study verstehen which refers t understanding the meaning peple attach t their actin. Thus, weber suggests while sciety has an impact upn individual actin, individuals als impact sciety. E.g. religin exists as a scial institutin befre and independent t individuals. Hwever, individuals can als change the institutin f religin. Fr instance, the prtestant wrk ethic led t the spirit f capitalism accrding t Weber. He distinguishes between scial actin in pre-mdern and mdern scieties, arguing the frmer is characterised by traditinal scial actin in which peple behave accrding t values assed dwn frm their ancestrs. Cnversely, mdern scieties are characterised by ratinal scial actin, which is calculative and has rm fr innvatin. Gidden s assumptin (Synptic link) Gidden s develped the thery structuratin, which als cmbines bth structural and scial actin theries: thereby prviding supprt fr Weber. He argues the existence f scial structures, like scial intuitins, beliefs and values, prvide peple with a framewrk f rules and values t fllw. Hwever, when engaging within this prcess peple in effect reprduce r change that structure. E.g. law and rder is a fixed structure, which changes ver time accrding t plicy. Fr instance, while hmsexuality was nce illegal this is n lnger the case tday.

34 Strengths The cmbinatin f structural and scial actin theries utweigh the limitatins f each and can explain prgress in sciety whether gradual r revlutinary. There are many examples which supprt bth Weber and Gidden s in which either individuals shape sciety (e.g. War n Terrr) r when sciety shapes individual actin (e.g. rise in tuitin fees and the affect n scial class within educatin). Limitatins Deterministic in assuming all individuals have the ptential t change sciety ignring marginalised r disadvantaged grups. Weber s thery f religin has been widely challenged and believed t be histrically inaccurate. It can explain which cmes first; the impact f structure r scial actin?

35 Symblic Interactinism n Sciety Research Methds: supprts Interpretivism and qualitative methds. What type f thery is it? 1) Cnflict vs. cnsensus 2) Structural r scial actin Cnflict thery as it assumes there are different interpretatins f symbls and meaning by different grups in sciety. Scial actin thery as it suggests individuals give meaning t their behaviur and actins, which in effect shapes sciety. Main assumptin f the thery Symblic Interactinism argues sciety is built by the interactins between peple that take place n the basis f meaning attached by individuals. It assumes individuals define their behaviur and sciety and react accrding t these definitins. Thus, they believe every actin has a reactin which leads t the creatin f the labelling thery. E.g. Families are believed t be a scial cnstructin, which is defined by its individual members wh each have a rle t play. Thus, Interactinist cmpares the family t the theatre. Mead s assumptin (Synptic link) Mead argues human behaviur is scial because peple interact in terms f symbls. E.g. wrds, flags, gestures etc. He believes that we need symbls fr interactin and survival and that symbls can have different meanings. E.g. suicide is frwned upn in western scieties but in Eskim scieties it is cmmn practise fr the elderly Eskim t cmmit suicide at times f fd shrtages. Hwever, Mead believes that mst scieties share the same symbl amng its members in shrt, the values f mainstream sciety. Thus, t understand behaviur, individuals need t read the rles f thers. This in effect helps us t build a self-cncept abut hw we shuld persnally behave idea that every actin has a reactin. Finally, he argues that each sciety has a plurality f scial rles. E.g. ne can be a father, wrker, gym member and churchger simultaneusly. Bulmer s assumptin (Synptic link) Agrees with Meads thery f symbls but adds mre t his thery. Bulmer argues that peple d nt react autmatically t external stimuli (sciety) but rather interpret meaning befre reacting, thereby using internal stimuli (nes psychlgy). E.g. drug use. He argues meanings develped during interactins are nt fixed but pen t change. E.g. ne can try drug, then ppse it at a latter time. Even rules and values that restrict scial actin and interpretatin f meaning are nt abslute r rigid. E.g. hmsexuality was nce illegal but nw the nrm.