Assessment of Learning Style in a Sample of Saudi Medical Students

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1 Assssmnt of Larning Styl in a Sampl of Saudi dical Studnts 83 ACTA INOR ED. 13 Jun; 21(2): doi: /aim Rcivd: 15 January 13 Accptd: arch 13 conflict of intrst: non dclard AVICENA 13 Assssmnt of Larning Styl in a Sampl of Saudi dical Studnts Wald Hamad Al BuAli 1, agdy Hassan Balaha 2, Nouria Saab Al uhaidab 3 Dpartmnt of Pdiatrics, Collg of dicin in Al-Ahsa, King aisal Univrsity, Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia 1 Dpartmnt Obsttrics and Gyncology, Collg of dicin in Al-Ahsa, King aisal Univrsity, Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia 2 Dpartmnt of English Languag, Collg of dicin in Al-Ahsa, King aisal Univrsity, Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia 3 Corrsponding author: Prof. agdy Hassan Balaha, Dpartmnt Obsttrics and Gyncology, Coordinator of Groningn dical Curriculum Adoption Unit, Chairman of study plan and curriculum Committ, Collg of dicin in Al-Ahsa, King aisal Univrsity, Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box: 4, Hofuf 31982, Saudi Arabia -mail: mbalaha@kfu.du.sa Original papr Summary Background: By knowing th diffrnt studnts larning styls, tachrs can plan thir instruction carfully in ways that ar capitalizd on studnt prfrncs. Th currnt rsarch is don to dtrmin spcific larning styls of studnts. thod: This cross sctional study was conductd in Al Ahsa Collg of dicin from 11 to 12. A sampl of 518 studnts compltd a qustionnair basd on Kolb invntory (LSI 2) to dtrmin thir larning styl. A spradsht was prpard to comput all th information to gt th cumulativ scors of larning abilitis and idntify th larning styls. Rsults: Th man valus of th larning abilitis; activ xprim, rflctiv obsrvati, abstract concptu or concrt xprinc (CE) for mal studnts wr, 28, 3 and 26 rspctivly whil thy wr 31, 3, 31 and 29 rspctivly for fmal studnts. Thr wr significant diffrnc btwn mal and fmal studnts rgarding th man valus of AE-RO (6.7 vs 1.5) and AC-CE (4.1 vs 2.1). This indicatd that th styl of mal studnts wr mor convrgnt and accommodating than thos of fmal studnts. Th fmal had mor assimilating and divrgnt styls. Conclusion: Larning styl in Saudi mdical studnts showd diffrnc btwn mals and fmals in th arly collg yars. ost mal studnts had convrgnt and accommodating larning styls, whil th fmal dominant larning styls wr divrgnt and assimilating. Planning and implm of instruction nd to considr ths findings. Ky words. Larning styl, Saudi Arabia, Kolb larning styl invntory 1. Introduction Larning styls rfr to cognitiv, affctiv, and physiological bhaviors that prform as rlativly stabl indicators of how popl prciv, intrplay with, and rspond to thir nvironmnt in larning situations by rcalling thir stord information (1, 2). Th currnt larning styl modls in th litratur rprsnt th thr layrs onion mtaphor consisting of; instructional prfrncs through which thy prciv information (outrmost layr), information procssing (middl layr) and prsonality (innrmost layr) (3). any instrumnts wr dsignd to masur diffrnt larning styls. On of th famous instrumnts concrnd with th middl layr is th Kolb larning styl modl (4). In Kolb s modl of xprintial larning, larning involvs a group of human activitis including fling, rflcting, thinking, and doing, whr th prson is rquird to mploy ach of th four ky larning abilitis: concrt xprinc (CE), rflctiv obsrvation (RO), abstract concptualization, and activ xprim. Individuals dvlop spcializd prfrncs for such activitis and abilitis; that ar calld larning styls (5). Any larning styl is nithr prfrabl nor infrior to anothr, but is simply diffrnt, with diffrnt charactristic strngths and waknsss (6). Education in Saudi Arabia is, notably dividd along th lin of gndr. Th division is in lin with th attituds of th Saudi socity which is basd on th Islamic principls that prohibit intrmingling btwn mn and womn (7). Our institut, Al Ahsa mdical Collg, King aisal Univrsity is composd of two sparat dpartmnts; on for mal and on for fmals to conform to th local cultural norm. Th collg startd in 1 with a traditional disciplin basd curriculum. During 11-12, th institution introducd th problm basd larning (PBL) curriculum adoptd from th Univrsity of Groningn, Nthrlands. On of th most common concrns all ovr th world is th dissatisfaction of both th studnts and tachrs rgarding taching and assssmnt. ultipl variabls may affct this phnomnon. Th currnt rsarch was don to dtrmin th studnt larning styls, and find if thr was any diffrnc btwn mal and fmal studnts. 2. thods Sttings This study was conductd in Al Ahsa Collg of dicin, King aisal Univrsity, Saudi Arabia from ACTA INOR ED. 13 Jun; 21(2): / Original papr

2 84 Assssmnt of Larning Styl in a Sampl of Saudi dical Studnts 11 to 12. Al Ahsa Oasis is th largst constitunt in th Eastrn Rgion of Saudi Arabia whr mor than on million of population is prsnt. Al Ahsa dical Collg srvs studnts from diffrnt rgions of Saudi Arabia. Subjcts and Study dsign A cross sctional dsign was usd in this study. Th population was th all studnts nrolld in th Collg of dicin. Th sampl includd all th studnts who accptd to shar and rturnd a filld survy form. It includd a total of 518 rspondnts from diffrnt acadmic yars in th Collg (37 mals and 211 fmals). Th instructions for complting th form wr clarifid, to avoid random and chanc bias during filling. Th mal and fmal rsarchrs agrd on standard stps of xplanation, assuranc, form distribution and collction. Th form was slf-scord by th studnts. Aftr xplaining th aims of th study and th mthods of data collction, all studnts wr askd to rturn th distributd forms anonymously with only dnoting th acadmic yar. Th fmal rsarchr hlpd to assur th fmal studnts and guarant th sam dgr of non-biasd form filling. Instrumnts for dtrmination of Larning Styl Kolb larning styl invntory (LSI 2) (8) was usd to collct th initial answrs and ranking of ach participant. Calculations wr don to rach to th actual larning styl. Validity and rliability of th LSI was prviously valuatd and provd (9,1,11). Th LSI is composd of 12 qustions with four options from A-D pr qustion. Each rspondnt was rqustd to complt th 12 sntncs by ranking th four choics by assigning 4 to th phras that is most lik him, 3 to th on that nxt dscribs him, 2 to th nxt, and finally, 1 to th nding that is last dscriptiv of him. Each of ths choics, corrspond to on of th four larning abilitis in a random and non-uniform pattrn. Th LSI mploys a forcd-choic mthod by which to masur an individual larning ori toward four larning abilitis rprsnting a rptitiv four-stp cyclical procss: concrt xprinc (fling) (CE), rflctiv obsrvation (watching) (RO), abstract concptualization (thinking), and activ xprim (doing) (8). Calculations for dtrmination of Larning Styl An Excl spradsht was prpard by th scond author to comput all th information and idntify th cumulativ scor of ach larning styl catgory. Th last possibl scor is 12 and th highst possibl scor is 48. Th gratr th scor of th larning ability, th mor significant that th studnts prfr to larn through this ability. Th man valus of ths abilitis wr plottd pr all group and acadmic yars in mals and fmals on th X axis rprsnting th AE and RO, whil th Y axis rprsntd AC and CE abilitis. Larning styl was prsntd as a diamond graph. urthrmor, th scors wr subtractd from on sum to th othr in two dialctical or opposit abilitis which dscrib a rlativ prfrrd way of larning. Th valu of AE-RO also shows how a prson transforms and procsss his larning xprinc with activ xprim abilitis or rflctiv obsrvation. Th valu of AC-CE rprsnts how a prson grasps larning xprinc ithr with abstract concptualization or with concrt xprinc. Th valus of ths subtractions wr rprsntd on a scal btwn +36 to -36. Th + 36 or 36 coms from subtraction of or Th man AE-RO and AC-CE valus wr plottd on a scattr gram in rlation to x and y axs rspctivly. Kolb put cut-off points of 5.9 for AE-RO and 4.3 for AC-CE as th LSI normativ scors, at which X and Y axs cross. (5, 8). A combination of two valus of mals als Total Participation (Sampl) Total studnts (Population) AE-RO and AC-CE dtrmins which of four larning styls prsons prfr to us. Th four larning styls wr rprsntd as convrgnt (N), Assimilating (), Divrgnt (DIV) and Accommodating (AC) Statistical analysis Computing th valus of larning styls was don by data ntry to icrosoft Excl spradsht. (icrosoft Corporation, USA). Th valus of th 4 dimnsions; AE ( or Dor), RO ( on or Watchr), AC ( or Thinkr) and CE ( Exprinc or lr) for all studnts wr stimatd. Th man valus of AE, RO, AC and CE pr acadmic yar and gndr wr calculatd and graphd to prsnt th larning styl ara. Th valus of AE-RO and AC-CE for all studnts wr plottd at th X and Y axs rspctivly. Crossing at AE-RO (5.9) and AC-CE (4.3) was graphd to dcid th four quadrants of larning ability; convrgnt, assimilating, divrgnt and Accommodating larning styls. Ths valus wr dcidd basd on th diffrnt cut off scors of th norms as prsntd by Kolb. SPSS (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Illinois) was usd to gt th dscriptiv statistics on th AE-RO and AC-CE and to prform t- tst to dtrmin if th diffrncs in th scors btwn th larning styls. Significanc was considrd at p <.5 in this study. 3. Rsults Tabl 1 prsntd th numbr and prcntag of sharing studnts dividd by th acadmic yar and by gndr. Th total studnts sharing in this study rprsntd 65% of total studnts. Tabl 2 and figur 4 prsntd th numbr of studnts pr % sharing Scond yar Third yar ourth yar ifth yar Sixth yar Total Tabl 1 prsntd th numbr and prcntag of sharing studnts ach of th four quadrants rprsnting; convrgnt (), assimilating (), divrgnt () and Accommodating (A) larning styls pr ach acadmic yar and in all th Collg and by gndr. Thr dots in th convrgnt and accommodating quadrants of Original papr / ACTA INOR ED. 13 Jun; 21(2): 83-88

3 Assssmnt of Larning Styl in a Sampl of Saudi dical Studnts 85 Th man valus of th larning abilitis; AE, RO, AC or CE for all Collg studnts wr, 28, 3 and 26 rspctivly for mal studnts whil thy wr 31, 3, 31 and 29 rspctivly for fmal studnts. Comparing mal and fmal studnts rgarding th man valus of AE-RO (6.7 vs 1.5) and AC-CE (4.1 vs 2.1), thr was significant diffrnc btwn thm. (t = 8.854, p<. as of AE-RO; t = 3.679, p<.1 as of AE- RO). AC N DIV igur 1: th man valus of th 4 dimnsions AE, Ro, AC and CE for all Collg studnts pr gndr (uppr half) and Scattr graph of th distribution of th cross point btwn AE-Ro X axis and th AC-CE Y axis. Th man valu of cross point btwn AE-Ro and th AC-CE was rprsntd by a black triangl ( ). Th 4 larning styls wr rprsntd by convrgnt (CoN), Assimilating (), Divrgnt (DIV) and Accommodating (AC) Exprim Exprim ntatio n Yar 2 mals Yar 2 fmals Yar 3 mals Yar 3 fmals 4 4 concrt Exprin cing (CE) Concpt u Exprinci ng (CE) Rflctiv Obsrvat i Exprim 3 4 concrt Exprin cing (CE) Concpt u Exprinc ing (CE) Rflctiv Obsrvat i mal studnts wr mor than thos of fmal studnts. Th rvrs was vidnt for th assimilating and divrgnt styls which wr mor dominant in fmal studnts. Yar 4 mals Yar 4 fmals Yar 5 mals Yar 5 fmals 3 Concrt Expri ncing (CE) Abstrac t Concpt Rflcti v Obsrva tion (RO) AC N n tation Exprinci ng (CE) a lizing Exprinci ng (CE) Concrat Exprinc (CE) alization o n (RO) Yar 6 mals Yar 6 fmals All mals All fmals Expri mntati on 3 Concrt Expri ncing (CE) Abstrac t Concp Rflcti v Obsrv ation (RO) igur 2: th man valus of th 4 dimnsions; AE, Ro, AC or CE for all studnts pr gndr in ach acadmic yar wr stimatd and plottd to produc diffrnt diamond shapd aras of larning prfrncs; th pattrn for mal studnts was narly similar in all yars and similar to th ovrall Collg. Thy had a narly cntral balancd pattrn. fmal studnts pattrn was dviatd towards th concrt xprinc or flr styls in scond and third yars. Th graph showd dviation to th rfl ctiv obsrvr or rfl ctiv pattrn till it bcam narly balancd and concntratd in th cntr of th graph at graduation. 3 Exprin cing (CE) Exprinc ing (CE) Concrat Exprinc (CE) alization DIV Rflctiv 4. discussion To th knowldg of th authors, no such study was don in th Gulf rgion to assss a whol dical Collg larning styl. dical collgs usually attract a group of th bst rankd studnts from th scintific disciplin of scondary schools. Studnts wr nrolld in mdical collgs according to th comptitiv ranking and intrst. With th ida that mdical studnts had th basic minimum scintific thinking suitabl for mdical study, th rsarchrs aimd to assss thir larning styl as a part of th ducational policy to dtrmin th coping abilitis of th studnts. A comparativ study was don btwn mal and was also don. Th pattrn for mal studnts was similar in scond, third, fourth and fifth yar lvl which wr similar to th ovrall Collg mal studnts. Th outcom was narly cntral balancd pattrn with narly qual sharing from all quadrants, signifying balancd larning styl. mal studnts pattrn was dviatd towards th concrt xprinc or flr styls in th scond and third yars. Th study also showd dviation to th rflctiv obsrvr or rflctiv pattrn and it bcam narly balancd and concntratd in th cntr of th graph during graduation. Considring that ach individual has his own larning prfrncs, yt, this variation and chang in fmal studnts cannot b clud to tru diffrnt styls in diffrnt cohorts. As statd by Cuthbrt, P. 5, w cannot xclud th ffct of larnr past xprinc in affcting his rspons to this qustionnair itms, hnc affcting th rsults (12). Th man valus of th 4 dimnsions of larning abilitis; AE, RO, AC or CE for all Collg studnts pr gndr wr prsntd. Ths valus acta inor D. 13 Jun; 21(2): / Original papr

4 86 Assssmnt of Larning Styl in a Sampl of Saudi dical Studnts 2 nd yar 3 rd yar 4 th yar 5 th yar 6 th yar All All studnts mal and fmal f f f f f f AE Ro CE AC AE-Ro T tst =8.854 ** AC-CE T tst =3.679 ** Convrgnt (84.6%) (15.4%) 162(31.3%) Assimilating (39.7) 47 (6.3) 78(15%) Divrgnt (44) 97 (56) 173(33.4%) Accommodating (6%) 42 (4%) 15(.3%) Total Tabl 2: Th man valus of AE, Ro, AC and CE and th man diffrncs [AE-Ro and AC-CE] pr acadmic yar and in all th Collg and by gndr wr stimatd A Yar 2 mals Yar 2 fmals Yar 3 mals Yar 3 fmals Yar 4 mals Yar 4 fmals Yar 5 mals Yar 5 fmals Yar 6 mals Yar 6 fmals All mals All fmals wr, 28, 3 and 26 rspctivly for mal studnts and thy wr 31, 3, 31 and 29 rspctivly for fmal studnts. Th man valu of AE-RO and th AC-CE wr 6.7 and 4.1 for A igur 3, th diffrnc btwn AE-Ro and AC-CE for all studnts was calculatd and ths valus wr rspctivly plottd at th X and Y axs. Crossing of th AE-Ro axis at 5.9 and AC-CE axis at 4.3 was graphd to dcid th four quadrants of larning ability; convrgnt (Co), assimilating (), divrgnt () and Accommodating (A) larning styls. Th mor scattrd points in any quadrant dnot to th prvalnc of this quadrant as a dominant larning styl. Th graphs ar don pr ach acadmic yar and in all th Collg and by gndr. Th ovrall man valus of ths diffrncs (AE-Ro, AC-CE) wr also plottd as a black triangl in figur 1, 3. mal studnts and 1.5 and 2.1 for fmal studnts. Th rprss of mal studnts in th convrgnt and accommodating quadrants wr mor than thos of fmal studnts. Th rvrs was vidnt for th assimilating and divrgnt styls which wr mor dominant in fmal studnts. Th larning styls in mals wr convrgnt (N) [137], assimilating () [31], divrgnt (DIV) [76] and accommodating (AC) [63]. Th larning styls in fmals wr distributd as convrgnt (N) [], assimilating () [47], divrgnt (DIV) [97] and accommodating (AC) [42]. Th ovrall rprs of larning styls in our sampl was 31.3% convrgnt, 15% assimilating, 33.4% divrgnt and.3% accommodating. Hall (1976) proposd a cultural classification of high-contxt and low contxt culturs, basd on how in ach individual idntity rsts on total communication framworks. Arabic countris blong to high contxt culturs that ar associatd with th CE mod; thrfor, thir mmbrs tnd to larn through fling in proximat contxts. (13) This supports th finding in th fmal studnts during arly collg yars. Howvr, latr on, all th studnts mal and fmal showd th balancd pattrn without any dviation to th high or low contxt pattrn. All th studnts, spcially mals ar mor xposd to diffrnt Wstrn ducational and cultural viws. Th man valus of AE, RO, AC or CE wr, 28, 3 and 26 rspctivly for mal studnts and thy wr 31, 3, 31 and 29 rspctivly for fmal studnts. mal studnts had mor tndncis towards RO and CE larning abilitis. This can b supportd with sham and guilt thory. Sham procss is mor associatd with th CE or flr abilitis. Also, guilt undrstanding imposs th us of intrnal vrbal xprssion with mor tndncis to b prsnt in individuals with th RO or watchr abilitis (14). Th findings of our study showd that th majority of convrgnt and accommodating larning styls wr sn in mal studnts mor than fmals [85 % and 6% rspctivly] whil th majority of divrgnt and assimilating styls wr sn in fmal studnts mor [6 % and 56% rspctivly]. Ths findings wr Original papr / acta inor D. 13 Jun; 21(2): 83-88

5 Assssmnt of Larning Styl in a Sampl of Saudi dical Studnts 87 C Wald Hammad - AI 13-2.pdf:19 supportd by arkus and Kitayama (1991) who xamind th slf-construal across culturs and th intrdpndnt-slf and indpndnt-slf, pattrns. (15). Popl with intrdpndnt-slf ar likly to xprss thir larning prfrnc of th CE and RO abilitis (Divrgnt Styl). In contrast, th Amrican and wstrn Europan indpndnt-slf is sn as an ntity that contains important charactristic attributs and as that which is sparat from contxt. Thy involv th two larning abilitis of AC and AE (Convrgnt styl) with rlianc upon clar concpts and distinct logic in thir minds. (16). Barmyr s (4) xamind larning styls of 132 rnch, 98 Grman, and 123 Qubcois studnts and found that th larning-styl distribution of rnch, Grman, Qubc studnts: 28.%, 12.2%,.2% as of th divrging styl; 34.1%, 42.9%, 38.2% as of th assimilating styl; 16.7%, 32.7%, 14.6% as of th convrging styl; 21.2%,12.2%, 22.% as of th accommodating styl, rspctivly. (17). Kolb LSI was administrd to thr groups at th Univrsity of Albrta: th ntir 2nd yar pr-clinical undrgraduat mdical class (N = 157). Ovrall survy rspons rat was 73%. Whn xamind for larning styl diffrncs, th distribution of larning styls wr 6% divrgnt, 4% assimilating, 34% convrgnt and 22% accommodating. (18). On of th studis don at Saudi B A Arabia was conductd on 75 studnts admittd to a 4-yar Bachlor of Scinc in Nursing dgr aftr high school dgr (convntional program or Stram I), and on 1 studnts admittd to a 2-yar acclratd program aftr univrsity dgr (Stram II). Th man scors of th four larning abilitis; CE, RO, AE and AC, rvald that AE was rankd th highst [Stram II (man = 36.7) and Stram I (.58)]; CE was rankd th lowst [Stram II (man = 23.12) and Stram I (man =.39)]. Th two combination man scors, AE RO and AC CE, for th ovrall sampl and for ach stram, indicatd that all mphasizd activ xprim ovr rflction and abstractnss ovr concrtnss. (19). In this study, th mals showd a larning styl which is mor similar to th indpndnt-slf Wstrn group. Convrgrs combin abstract concptualization with activ xprim. Thy apply thir knowldg to xamin problms and arriv at solutions in a hypothtic-dductiv mannr. Thy prfr practical application of idas and work on tchnical problms. On th othr hand, th fmal studnts xprssd a mor tndncy to th intrdpndnt-slf pattrn. Divrgrs ar dscribd as imaginativ, motional, popl-orintd, and culturally intrstd and also viw xprincs from diffrnt prspctivs using divrgnt thinking. Dspit th studnts ar drivd from th sam cultur, thr was a diffrnc in th dominant larning D styl btwn mal and fmal studnts. Robinson (7) supportd cultural variability among groups and citd th advantags of larning styl diffrncs. Diffrncs may vary within cultural groups as wll as btwn thm (). On th contrary to ths cultural diffrncs, Zualkrnan, (6) studid participants from computr programming and nginring. H compard participants studying at an Amrican idwstrn Univrsity in th Unitd Arab Emirats, with studnts from an Amrican background. Both groups rspondd to th ldr Solomn indx of larning styls. Th rsarchrs showd no significant diffrncs in larning styl btwn both groups. (21). Joy and Kolb (9) aimd to xamin th rol that cultur plays in th way individuals larn. Th sampl of 533 studnts from svn countris rspondd to th Kolb invntory. Thr was significant intraction btwn cultur and AC CE. Thr was no significant intraction btwn cultur and AE RO (22). 5. conclusions Larning styl in Saudi mdical studnts showd diffrnc btwn mals and fmals in th arly collg yars. ost mal studnts had convrgnt and accommodating larning styls, whil th fmal dominant larning styls wr divrgnt and assimilating. Planning and implm of instruction nd to considr ths findings. It is not nough to dvlop an awarnss of on s larning styl (for th studnt) and an awarnss of th larning styls of a population of studnts (for th tachr), this awarnss must b translatd into a zon of comfort for larning and taching stratgis, rspctivly. Corrlation with studnt prformanc in diffrnt curriculum parts will b our nxt rsarch. Study Limitations This rsarch was basd on sampl from our Collg, including about 5 studnts. This study dpndd on slf-filld qustionnair. Confounding factors as studnt fling, mood and own prsonal prspctivs may affct th acta inor D. 13 Jun; 21(2): / Original papr

6 88 Assssmnt of Larning Styl in a Sampl of Saudi dical Studnts findings. Th multipl acadmic lvls of th studnts may affct th way thy think and answr th qustions of larning styl invntory bcaus th xprinc gaind by Collg ducation may affct th answrs. Acknowldgmnts Th authors of this rsarch would lik to thank all th studnts who accptd to shar in this study. Also, thy apprciat th fforts of r. Karlo Pangan, lcturr at Al Ahsa dical Collg, for his mticulous and kind rvision of th English languag of this manuscript. Rfrncs 1. Kf JW, rrll BG. Dvloping a Dfnsibl Larning Styl Paradigm. Educational Ladrship. 199; 48: Jams WB, Gardnr DL. Larning styls: Implications for distanc larning. Nw Dirctions for Adult and Continuing Education. 1995; 67: Curry L. An Organization of Larning Styls Thory and Constructs. Annual mting of th Amrican Educational Rsarch Association, ontral, Canada, Yamazaki Y. Larning styls and typologis of cultural diffrncs: A thortical and mpirical comparison. Intrnational Journal of Intrcultural Rlations. 5; 29(5): Kolb, D. Exprintial Larning: Exprinc as th sourc of larning and dvlopmnt. Englwood Cliffs, NJ: Prntic Hall, ldr R, Brnt R. Undrstanding studnt diffrncs. Journal of Enginring Education. 5; 94(1): Al-Aql A. Education policy in th Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. (In Arabic) Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Al-Roshd Library, Kolb DA. Larning Styl Invntory, Vrsion 3. Boston, A: TRG Hay/ cbr, Loo, R. Construct validity and classification stability of th rvisd Larning Styl Invntory (LSI-1985). Educational Psychological asurmnt. 1996; 56(3): ainmlis C, Boyatzis RE, Kolb DA. Larning styls and adaptiv flxibility: Tsting xprintial larning thory. anagmnt Larning. 2; 33(1): Platsidou, tallidou P. Validity and rliability issus of two larning styl invntoris in a Grk sampl: Kolb larning styl invntory and ldr & Soloman s indx of larning styls. Intrnational. Journal of Taching and Larning in Highr Education. 9; (3): Cuthbrt P. Th studnt larning procss: larning styls or larning approachs?. Taching in Highr Education. 5; 1(2): Hall ET. Byond cultur. Gardn City, NY: Anchor Prss/Doublday, Emd RN, Oppnhim D. Sham, guilt, and th Odipal drama: Dvlopmntal considrations concrning morality and th rfrncing of critical othrs. In J.P. Tangny & KW. ischr (Eds.), Slf-conscious motions: Th psychology of sham, guilt, mbarrassmnt, and prid (pp ). Nw York: Guilford Prss, arkus HR, Kitayama S. Cultur and th slf: Implications for cognition, motion, and motivation. Psychological Rviw. 1991; 98: Boyatzis RE, Kolb DA. rom larning styls to larning skills: Th xcutiv skills profil. Journal of anagrial Psychology. 1995; 1(5): Barmyr CI. Larning styls and thir impact on cross-cultural training: An intrnational comparison in ranc, Grmany and Qubc. Intrnational Journal of Intrcultural Rlations. 4; 28: Engls PT, d Gara RL. Larning styls of mdical studnts, gnral surgry rsidnts, and gnral surgons: implications for surgical ducation. BC dical Education 1; 1: Suliman WA. Critical thinking and larning styls of studnts in convntional and acclratd programms. Intrnational Nursing Rviw. 6; 53: Robinson N, Shor B, Enrsn DL. Bst practics in giftd ducation: An vidnc-basd guid. Waco, TX: Prufrock Prss, Zualkrnan I, Allr J, Qadah G. Larning styls of computr programming studnts: A iddl Eastrn and Amrican comparison. IEEE Transactions on Education. 6; 49(4): Joy S., Kolb D. Ar thr cultural diffrncs in larning styl?. Intrnational Journal of Intrcultural Rlations. 9; 33: Original papr / ACTA INOR ED. 13 Jun; 21(2): 83-88