PAPER 1 GCSE PE REVISION GUIDE MR MARGOLAN Applied Anatomy and Physiology Structure and function of the musculoskeletal system

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1 PAPER 1 GCSE PE REVISION GUIDE MR MARGOLAN Applied Anatomy and Physiology Structure and function of the musculoskeletal system The Skeletal System There are 206 bones in the human body - the larger bones are: We also need to know that. The TALUS bone joins the tibia and fibula to make up the ankle. Functions of the skeleton 1. Support/ Shape Bones are solid/ rigid Skeleton creates rigid bone frame our shape (e.g. height) mainly due to skeleton Keeps us upright Supports soft tissue such as muscle/ skin Without it collapse like jelly 2. Protection Bones are tough Protect delicate organs; Cranium protects brain Ribsprotects heart and lungs 3. Movement Joint where 2 or more bones meet Muscles attach to bones by tendons Muscles contract (shorten) to pull bones to create movement Shape and type of bone determine amount of movement e.g. long bones allow gross movement. LONG BONES ARE LEVERS

2 4. Making blood cells Long bones contain bone marrow This is where red blood cells are made RBC s carry oxygen around the body used to produce energy White blood cells fight infection 5. Mineral storage e.g. calcium needed for strong bones, teeth, and muscle contractions Found in green vegetables, milk, cheese, some fish. Function of the skeleton Example of bone that does this? Sporting situation? 1. Protection Cranium The cranium protects the brain when heading a ball in football. 2. support/ shape vertebrae helps give us our height, shape and posture A taller shape may give us an advantage in some sporting situations - longer reach helps a Goal keeper in netball to reach out and block a shot. 3. movement Humerus Throwing a ball in netball 4. making red blood cells Femur red blood cells are used to carry oxygen which is needed in AEROBIC sports that require CARDIOVASCULAR FITNESS such as cross-country running. 5. Mineral storage Tibia Stores calcium. Calcium makes bones stronger Tibia becomes less likely to FRACTURE or break in a tackle in football. Types of Bones We can group all the bones into 4 types, based on their shape. Each different shape makes them better at different functions. There are 4 types of bone; long, short, flat and irregular.

3 1. Long bones Usually bones in arms/ legs; E.g. humerus, femur. Always longer than they are wide Function: Movement can generate strength and speed. Allow gross movement (large movements) 2. Short bones Are usually about as wide as they are long E.g. carpals and tarsals Function: shock absorption, spread impact, quite strong Short bones enable fine controlled (small) movements. 3. Flat bones E.g. ribs, cranium Protection of vital organs Large surface area good for attachment to tendons and muscles. 4. Irregular bones Unusual shapes usually unique! E.g. vertebrae Protection

4 Types of bones Long Short Flat Irregular Femur Humerus Radius Ulna Radius Phalanges Femur Tibia Fibula metacarpals Metatarsals Carpals Tarsals Cranium Scapula Ribs Clavicle Sternum Pelvis Vertebrae Patella (sesamoid) Muscular System

5 Key words Bursae Calcium Capsule Cartilage Fine movement Gross movement Joint (synovial) Ligament Mineral Meniscus Skeletal system Synovial fluid Synovial joint Synovial membrane Tendon Vertebrae Sack of fluid to reduce friction. A mineral that assists bone formation. Tough fibrous tissue surrounds synovial joints ususlly supported by ligaments. Prevents friction/ bones rubbing together. Small, precise movements, showing high levels of accuracy and co-ordination. Involves small muscle groups. Movement using large muscle groups to perform big, strong, powerful movements. Place where 2 or more bones meet Attaches bone to bone. Inorganic substances which assist the body with many of its functions. Cartilage acting as a shock absorber between tibia and femur in knee joint Provides a framework of bones for movement in conjunction with the muscular system. Oil inside the synovial joint that keeps it lubricated to stop friction. An area of the body where 2 or more bones meet (articulate). Contains synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid. Secretes synovial fluid. Attaches muscle to bone. Bones that form the spine or backbone Synovial Joint An area of the body where 2 or more bones meet (articulate) to allow a range of movement. (NOTE: There are places in the body called FIXED JOINTS where 2 or more bones meet but there is NO MOVEMENT! For example.??) FIXED JOINTS - where 2 or more bones meet but there is NO MOVEMENT! For example.cranium

6 Features of a Synovial Joint Feature Description (what it looks like) Function (what it does) Eg bursae a sack of fluid reduces friction in the joint. reduces rubbing of bones synovial membrane Thin layer that lines the inside of a synovial joint Produces synovial fluid lubrication reduces rubbing of bones Synovial fluid Joint capsule Ligament Cartilage straw coloured viscous fluid 2 membranes surrounding a synovial joint Short band of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissue Smooth, tough, elastic, rubbery tissue found in-between bones or on end of bones. lubrication reduces rubbing of bones Stops foreign objects (dirt/ dust) getting into the joint prevents infection Stops synovial fluid coming out! Holds bones strongly together Bones in a joint can only move in certain directions Prevents dislocation (bone coming out of a joint) Protect ends of bones bending/ straightening knee running wear ends of bones away e.g. femur arthritis

7 Types of synovial Joint 1. HINGE JOINT Only moves in 2 directions like a door hinge Bends and straightens FLEXION decrease in the angle of the bones at a joint EXTENSION - increase in the angle of the bones at a joint EXAMPLES; Elbow, knee, ankle 2. BALL & SOCKET moves in all directions Rounded end of 1 bone fits into socket shape of another bone FLEXION & EXTENSION ABDUCTION (movement away from the midline of the body) ADDUCTION (movement towards the midline of the body) ROTATION (movement around an axis) EXAMPLES; shoulder and hip Bones that form joints Head-neck joint Where head meets neck Bones in neck are the vertebrae join to the cranium Allows head to nod Elbow joint Hinge joint Formed between end of humerus and ends of ulna and radius Capable of flexion and extension Shoulder joint Ball and socket joint Formed between end of humerus and the scapula Round head of humerus is ball cup like depression of scapula is socket Greatest movement of any joint Capable of flexion and extension, abduction and adduction and rotation More movement however disadvantage more likely to dislocate

8 Hip joint Ball and socket joint Formed between femur meets the pelvis Round head of femur fits into a depression in the pelvis called the acetabulum Capable of flexion and extension, abduction and adduction and rotation Knee joint Hinge joint Formed between femur and tibia Patella (knee cap) lies in front but not part of the knee Between femur and tibia is a tough, rubbery cartilage called meniscus (shock absorber in the knee often gets damaged) Capable of flexion and extension 4 strong ligaments keep the knee in position and stable Medial ligament (inside of leg) Lateral ligament (outside of leg) Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) (inside the knee) Ankle joint Hinge joint Formed between tibia, fibula and talus of the foot. Capable of plantar flexion and dorsi flexion Movement at a synovial Joint EXTENSION increase in the angle of the bones at a joint FLEXION decrease in the angle of the bones at a joint ABDUCTION movement away from the midline of the body ADDUCTION movement towards the midline of the body ROTATION movement around an axis PLANTAR FLEXION pointing the toes at the ankle/ increasing the ankle angle DORSI FLEXION toes up at the ankle/ decreasing the ankle angle

9 Movement summary table Name of joint Type of joint Movement is possible = / Movement isn t possible = X Extension Flexion Abduction Adduction Rotation Plantar Flexion Dorsi Flexion Knee hinge / / x x x x X Shoulder Ball & socket / / / / / x x Elbow hinge / / x x x x x Hip Ball & Socket / / / / / x x Ankle hinge x x x x x / / Sporting examples of synovial Joint Movement Knee flexion occurs in sport when we land at the end of long jump. Knee extension occurs when we kick a football Shoulder flexion occurs when we raise our arms to catch a ball above our head. Shoulder extension occurs when we lower our arms to put our hands onto a box to vault. Shoulder abduction occurs when we move into a star jump. Shoulder adduction occurs when we come out of a star jump into a pencil. Shoulder rotation occurs when we spin bowl in cricket. elbow flexion occurs when we complete a bicep curl. elbow extension occurs when we throw a ball. hip flexion occurs when we raise our knees into a tuck jump. hip extension occurs when we drop our knees in a dive in swimming. hip abduction occurs when we go into a breast stroke kick. hip adduction occurs when we kick out into a glide in breast stroke. hip rotation occurs when we turn our foot out to do a side of the foot pass. Ankle plantar flexion occurs when we jump up off the ground. Ankle dorsi flexion occurs when we land from a jump.

10 MUSCLE MOVEMENT ANTAGONISTIC PAIRS Muscles are attached to bones by tendons. As the muscle contracts (gets shorter) it pulls the bone to create movement. PROBLEM??? MUSCLES CAN ONLY PULL THEY CAN T PUSH so how does the opposite movement occur? E.G. A bicep contracts to create elbow flexion. So how does the elbow straighten (extension)??? Muscles are arranged in ANTAGONISTIC (opposite pairs). The AGONIST (PRIME MOVER) is the muscle or group responsible for movement. The ANTAGONIST acts to produce the opposite action to the agonist. ELBOW FLEXION AGONIST = BICEP ANTAGONIST = TRICEP ELBOW EXTENSION AGONIST = TRICEP ANTAGONIST = BICEP

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13 Isotonic Muscle contractions An ISOTONIC MUSCLE CONTRACTION IS A Muscle contraction that results in limb movement. There are 2 types; CONCENTRIC CONTRACTION shortening of the muscle ECCENTRIC CONTRACTION lengthening of the muscle Most sporting actions kicking, jumping, running are ISOTONIC. Isometric Muscle contractions An ISOMETRIC Muscle contraction where the length of the muscle does not alter. The contraction is constant, i.e. pushing against a load. Examples include holding a weight still, the plank, and a handstand Lever Systems and Mechanical Advantage Types of Lever Movement is created by a series of levers in the body. Levers allow us to throw, kick, run and jump. What is a lever? KEY TERMS: LEVER: a rigid bar that turns about an axis to create movement. All levers contain a fulcrum, load and effort. FULCRUM: The fixed point at which a lever turns or is supported. It can also be referred to as the axis. LOAD: the weight or resistance that the lever must move. EFFORT: the force required to move the load. It can be referred to as force. (comes from muscles)

14 3 types of lever First class Second class Third class Fulcrum, effort and load in different positions First class levers Fulcrum is midway between effort and load Therefore, fulcrum is quite near both the effort and load Holding the javelin is a sporting example of a first class lever. Where is the load, fulcrum and effort? Javelin is the load/ effort comes from biceps and triceps/ elbow is the fulcrum Second class levers The load is between the fulcrum and the effort. A large load can be moved with relatively low effort. A press up is a sporting example of a second class lever. Where is the fulcrum, load and effort? Fulcrum is the toes/ load is the total body weight/ effort from biceps/ triceps Third class levers The effort is in-between the fulcrum and load This gives LARGER range of movement

15 Paddling a kayak is a sporting example of a third class lever. Where is the fulcrum, load and effort? Load is water resistance/ effort is biceps and triceps/ fulcrum is top hand EXAM TIP 1, 2, 3, F, L, E Mechanical Advantage To remove a stuck lid off a can of paint, which screwdriver do you choose? Shorter or longer? WHY? KEY TERMS: LOAD ARM: The distance from the load to the fulcrum. EFFORT ARM: The distance from the effort to the fulcrum MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE: Measures the efficiency of a lever. It is calculated as follows: Mechanical advantage = effort arm load (resistance) arm

16 High mechanical advantage When a levers effort arm is longer than it s load arm it has HIGH MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE. Levers with a high mechanical advantage can move large loads with relatively low effort. SECOND CLASS LEVERS have HIGH M.A. load Load arm Low mechanical advantage Effort arm When a levers load arm is longer than it s effort arm it has LOW MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE. Levers with a low mechanical advantage can NOT move large loads due to the POSITION of the FULCRUM. THIRD CLASS LEVERS have LOW M.A. THIRD CLASS LEVERS can INCREASE DISTANCE COVERED & therefore SPEED at the end of the lever. They can produce a LARGER RANGE OF MOVEMENT with relatively low effort. Load arm

17 First class levers High or low mechanical advantage? If the FULCRUM is closer to the LOAD, first class levers can have a HIGH MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE. EFFORT LOAD FULCRUM If the FULCRUM is closer to the EFFORT, first class levers can have a LOW MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE. EFFORT LOAD summary table FULCRUM First class lever Second class lever Third class lever Example from every day Seesaw Wheelbarrow Hammering a nail Example from sport Holding a javelin/ bicep curl Press up Paddling a kayak, Plantar flexion What s in the middle? (F,L,E) Fulcrum lever Effort High or Low mechanical advantage EITHER depends where the fulcrum is HIGH LOW Effort needed to move a load EITHER depends where the fulcrum is Low effort to move high load Higher effort to move same load Speed generated at end of lever EITHER depends where the fulcrum is LOWER/ SLOWER HIGHER/ FASTER Range of movement EITHER depends where the fulcrum is Lower Higher

18 Planes of movement and axes of rotation Planes of movement PLANE: An imaginary line that splits the body in two and depicts the direction of movement. There are 3 types of plane: FRONTAL, TRANSVERSE & SAGITTAL. Axes of movement AXIS: An imaginary straight line through the body around which it rotates. There are 3 types of plane: SAGITTAL, TRANSVERSE & LONGITUDINAL.

19 Frontal plane and sagittal axis FRONTAL PLANE Runs left to right and divides the body into front half and back halves. SAGITTAL AXIS Runs horizontally through the body from front to back, through the belly button. Allows ABDUCTION & ADDUCTION. Sporting Example? Cartwheel Transverse plane and longitudinal axis TRANSVERSE PLANE divides the body in half horizontally LONGITUDINAL AXIS runs vertically through the body from head to toe. Allows ROTATION of the body in an upright position. Sporting Example? Ice skater spinning/ discus throw Sagittal plane and transverse axis SAGITTAL PLANE runs forwards and backwards and divides the body into left and right halves. TRANSVERSE AXIS runs horizontally through the body from left to right at the hips. Allows FLEXION & EXTENSION of the whole body.

20 Structure and functions of the cardio-respiratory system Cardio HEART Respiratory BREATHING/ LUNGS Structure of the heart Heart is a muscle that pumps blood around the body. chambers Top 2 chambers are atria (left atrium, right atrium) Bottom 2 chambers are ventricles (left ventricle, right ventricle) Veins bring blood back into the heart (vena cava and pulmonary vein) Arteries carry blood AWAY from the heart (pulmonary artery and aorta) Valves in the heart (in-between atrium and ventricles and in the pulmonary artery and aorta) are forced open by the pressure of the blood. But they only allow blood in one direction so stop back flow.

21 The Pathway of blood DE-OXYGENATED BLOOD (low in oxygen/ blue) goes into the RIGHT ATRIUM through the VENA CAVA. DE-OXYGENATED BLOOD goes into the RIGHT VENTRICLE DE-OXYGENATED BLOOD leaves the heart via the PULMONARY ARTERY to the LUNGS. GAS EXCHANGE occurs. The blood gets rid of carbon dioxide in the lungs and picks up oxygen. The blood becomes OXYGENATED (high in oxygen/ red) OXYGENATED BLOOD goes back to the heart to the LEFT ATRIUM via the PULMONARY ARTERY. OXYGENATED BLOOD goes into the LEFT VENRTICLE. OXYGENATED BLOOD leaves the heart via the AORTA. It goes to the whole body delivering oxygen to the muscles and organs. The blood loses its oxygen and picks up carbon dioxide it is now DEOXYGENATED again.

22 Cardiac cycle The process of the heart going through the stages of systole and diastole in the atria and ventricles. Blood pressure The pressure that blood is under. Types of pressure: systolic - when the heart is contracting diastolic - when the heart is relaxed. Heart rate The number of times the heart beats (usually measured per minute). Stroke volume The volume of blood pumped out of the heart by each ventricle during one contraction. Cardiac output The amount of blood ejected from the heart in one minute or ; cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (breathing) We need oxygen for AEROBIC RESPIRATION to produce energy. Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the muscles (oxygenated blood) and carbon dioxide from the muscles (deoxygenated blood) back to the lungs. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin which attach to oxygen or carbon dioxide. When haemoglobin attaches to oxygen it is called oxyhaemoglobin. The heart makes this happen by pumping the blood around. The heart, blood and blood vessels are the circulatory system. Getting oxygen into the blood and taking carbon dioxide out of the blood is the job of the respiratory system. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (breathing)

23 Air enters through the mouth and nose. It travels down the trachea (windpipe) to the lungs. The trachea splits into 2 bronchi. These divide into smaller airways called bronchioles. Finally the air reaches millions of tiny sacs called alveoli where gas exchange occurs. Gas exchange in the alveoli As we breathe in (INHALE), air come into the alveoli. The alveoli has a very thin wall and has a capillary wrapped around it, also with a very thin wall. The inhaled air in the alveoli has a HIGH CONCENTRATION of OXYGEN. The deoxygenated blood in the capillary has a LOW CONCENTRATION of OXYGEN. Oxygen moves from the high concentration to the low concentration (DIFFUSION). CARBON DIOXIDE (high concentration in deoxygenated blood, low concentration in the alveoli) moves the opposite way, from the blood into the alveoli. Carbon dioxide goes out the body back via the bronchi and trachea as we breathe out (EXHALE).

24 Features of the alveoli that assist gas exchange Large surface area of alveoli (millions of alveoli) Moist thin walls (one cell thick) easy for gas to get through Short distance for diffusion (short diffusion pathway) Lots of capillaries Large blood supply Movement of gas from high concentration to low concentration INHALATION (INSPIRING) Inhalation is breathing in The intercostal muscles in-between the ribs contract to lift the ribs upwards and outwards The diaphragm contracts and flattens The thoracic cavity gets bigger and the lungs expand with air EXHALATION (EXPIRING) Exhalation is breathing out The intercostal muscles in-between the ribs relax to lower the ribs down and in The diaphragm relaxes and goes up The thoracic cavity gets smaller and the lungs empty

25 During exercise The lungs can expand more during inspiration due to the pectoral and sternocleidomastoid muscles. Rib cage is pulled down quicker during expiration to force air out quicker by the abdominal muscles. How does air enter the lungs? Ribs move up & out & diaphragm flattens. Lungs increase in volume. Air pressure inside the lungs drops. Air pressure outside the lungs is higher than in the lungs. Air moves from a high pressure to low pressure (diffusion)

26 Lung Volumes measured by a Spirometer trace tidal volume volume of air inspired or expired/exchanged per breath. inspiratory reserve volume the amount of air that could be breathed in after tidal volume. expiratory reserve volume the amount of air that could be breathed out after tidal volume. residual volume the amount of air left in the lungs after maximal expiration. Spirometer Trace Interpretation and explanation of a spirometer trace what happens during exercise? 1. Describe what has happened to the breathing during exercise? Amount of oxygen breathed in & out with each breath/ tidal volume has increased/ got larger. Tidal volume graph lines are narrower together/ rate of breathing is faster 2. Explain what has happened to the breathing rate during exercise? (WHY?) We need more OXYGEN during exercise to supply more ENERGY to our working muscles for AEROBIC RESPIRATION.

27 AEROBIC & ANAEROBIC Aerobic Exercise With oxygen Low/ medium intensity/ longer duration walking, jogging, swim/run/cycle at medium speed When exercise is not too fast and is steady, the heart can supply all the oxygen that the working muscles need. Heart rate is below 80% of maximum Summarised as: glucose + oxygen energy + carbon dioxide + water. Anaerobic Exercise Without oxygen. Short duration/ high intensity Sprinting/ jumping/ throwing When exercise duration is short and at high intensity, the heart and lungs cannot supply blood and oxygen to muscles as fast as the respiring cells need them. Summarised as: glucose energy + lactic acid. Whenever answer WHY an activity is aerobic or anaerobic, use the key words INTENSITY (how hard something is) and DURATION (how long something lasts). Games such as rugby, netball, football and tennis, we work at a MIXED INTENSITY. These games are both AEROBIC and ANAEROBIC. When we are sprinting & jumping, we are ANAEROBIC. During half time, set pieces, injuries, ball out of play or periods of time when we can stand still, walk or jog, we become AEROBIC. Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) Sometimes referred to as oxygen debt (now an outdated term) EPOC refers to the amount of oxygen needed to recover after exercise. Occurs as a result of respiring ANAEROBICALLY during vigorous exercise and producing lactic acid. EPOC enables lactic acid to be converted to glucose, carbon dioxide and water (using oxygen). It explains why we continue to breathe deeply and quickly after exercise to repay the debt. RECOVERY from vigorous exercise Method of recovery What? Why? COOL DOWN DIET Low intensity movement jog/ walk Stretching Rehydration Eat carbohydrates Bring heart rate & breathing rate down slowly Removal of lactic acid Replace water lost through sweating (stop dehydration) Replace glycogen in the muscles used during exercise ICE BATH MASSAGE Muscles that have been working sit in ice for up to 3 minutes Rubbing the muscles that have been working Vasodilation inside the muscle to increase blood flow and break up lactic acid Prevent DOMS Prevent DOMS

28 DOMS Delayed onset of muscle soreness The pain felt in the muscles the day after exercise. What types of activity might lead to DOMS, and require recovery methods like ice baths, cool-downs and massage? High Intensity/ anaerobic Why?These types of activity will create EPOC and lactic acid Short and Long term effects of exercise Immediate effects of exercise (DURING exercise) Short term effect (24 36 hours after exercise) Long term effect (after months or years) Hot/ sweaty/ red skin Tiredness/ fatigue Body shape may change Increased body temperature Light headedness Improvement in specific components of fitness Vascular shunt more blood to muscles Increase in depth an frequency of breathing Increase in heart rate Nausea Aching/ delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS)/ cramp Build muscle strength Improve muscular endurance Improve speed Increase in stroke volume and cardiac output Improve suppleness Build cardiovascular endurance Improve stamina Increase in the size of the heart (hypertrophy Lower resting heart rate (bradycardia) KEY TERM: HYPERTROPHY The enlargement of an organ or tissue caused by an increase in the size of its cells. When a muscle is trained, small tears are created. As they heal, they become thicker and increase in size. Why don t athletes who do weight training, train the same muscle group each day? Why do they have a rest day or rotate muscle groups? Need at least 48 hours for small tears to repair and strengthen. RECOVERY ice baths and protein helps muscle repair. Lack of enough rest will cause muscle damage/ injuries (muscle tears) or lack of hypertrophy

29 KEY TERM: Bradycardia Lower resting heart rate as a result of training. A resting HR below 60 in adults is considered bradycardia. WHY might Mo Farah have a lower HR than an average person? Heart is a MUSCLE - becomes bigger through training (Cardiac Hypertrophy) Therefore can pump out more blood with each beat (larger stroke volume) At rest it doesn t need to beat as often to deliver same amount of blood Cardiac Hypertrophy Larger heart = larger cardiac output Why is this an advantage for an endurance athlete? Larger heart = larger stroke volume = larger cardiac output Can pump more blood Carries more oxygen to muscles for aerobic respiration During exercise why does the skin appear red? Vasodilation in arteries near the skins surface. More blood nearer the surface (red face) to allow water to come out of the blood through the skin (sweat) why do we sweat? Water on the skin evaporates to cool us down. why does the heart rate increase? More blood pumped to the working muscle carrying more oxygen for aerobic respiration.

30 Physical Training Below are 10 different fitness tests. Each test measures a different component of fitness. Write in the correct test into the correct box. Component of fitness Definition Test Agility Balance The ability to move and change direction quickly (at speed) whilst maintaining control The maintenance of the centre of mass over the base of support Illinois Agility Test Stork Balance Test Cardiovascular endurance(aerobic power) Co-ordination The ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen to the working muscles The ability to use different (two or more) parts of the body together smoothly and efficiently Multi-stage Fitness Test (Bleep Anderson Ball Catch test Flexibility The range of movement possible at a joint Sit and reach test Muscular endurance Ability of a muscle or muscle group to undergo repeated contractions avoiding fatigue. Abdominal curl conditioning test Power/explosive strength/anaerobic power The product of strength and speed Sergeant jump (vertical jump) test Reaction time The time taken to initiate a response to a stimulus Ruler drop test Strength(maximal, static, dynamic and explosive) The ability to overcome a resistance One rep max test/hand grip dynamometer Speed The maximum rate at which an individual is able to perform a movement or cover a distance in a period of time 30m sprint test

31 Why do we do fitness testing? Reasons for carrying out fitness tests 1. To identify strengths and/or weaknesses in a performance. Are there reasons for performing well or not so well? For example, perhaps your dribbling in a hockey match was poor because of a lack of speed? 2. To inform your training requirements. As a result of initial tests, what components did you score poorly in and therefore may need to improve? 3. To show a starting level of fitness. By testing at the start of a training programme, you can work out what level you are starting at. This links in well with the next point. 4. To monitor improvement. Have the components of fitness you needed to improve actually improved over a period of time? 5. To gauge the success of a training programme. If you have been training specific components of fitness you may test how well it has gone by undertaking fitness tests To compare against norms of the group/national averages. You can compare results with your peers or, for an informed appraisal, some tests have national averages that you can compare your scores to To motivate/set goals. Having knowledge that you will be doing fitness tests may well motivate an individual to try harder or to train in advance of the test so as to score well. It could also be that an individual is set a specific goal to achieve in the tests, thus providing them with motivation (drive) To provide variety in a training programme. Training programmes can be boring and lack variety. Carrying out tests either randomly or on a planned basis may well provide the variety required to keep individuals enthusiastic and motivated. Key term: 'protocol' This means: what do you actually do to carry out the test? Remember to use the correct units when describing a test, for example, one rep max in kilograms (kg). Agility test - Illinois agility test The test involves the following protocol: Equipment: 8 cones, a measuring tape and a stopwatch. The cones should be arranged in a 10 m x 5 m rectangle with 4 cones down the middle Performer starts face down on the floor. The test involves running round the cones as fast as possible (it is a maximal test). It is timed in seconds, and It can be compared to the ratings below

32 Balance test - the 'stork balance' test This test involves the following protocol: Equipment: a stopwatch is required. The individual starts balanced on two flat feet. Hands are placed on the hips. One leg is lifted so that the toes of the lifted leg touch the inside of the knee of the planted leg. The timekeeper tells the individual to raise the heel on the planted leg (and the stopwatch should start). The individual balances on one leg for as long as possible until they lose balance or have to move the toes attached to the inside of the knee. The time is recorded in minutes/seconds. Cardio-vascular endurance (aerobic power) test - multi-stage fitness test The test involves the following protocol: Equipment: cones, tape measure (20 m or more), tape/cd with test, sheet to record score. It is run over a distance of 20 m, i.e. cones/line 20 m apart. It is progressive, i.e. it progressively gets harder. Individual runs 20 m in time with 'bleeps'. The time between bleeps gets shorter as the level increases. The individual keeps running until they cannot keep up with the bleeps (maximal test). If you do not get to the line in time you get 2 more attempts to catch up with the bleeps only. The score is recorded as a level and a bleep. The score can predict your VO2 Max VO2 Max = the amount of oxygen that can be consumed per minute Co-ordination test - wall toss test (Anderson ball catch test) The test involves the following protocol: Equipment: a ball (usually a tennis ball), a flat wall, a stopwatch, an observer (timekeeper and scorer). The tennis ball starts in one hand. Both feet together, 2 m from the wall. Upon the command of 'go' the time starts 30 seconds. The individual throws the ball against the wall and catches the ball with the opposite hand. This is repeated as many times as possible counting 1, 2, 3, etc. Two attempts are allowed. If the ball is dropped the time continues. Flexibility test - sit and reach test The test involves the following protocol: Equipment: sit and reach box, slider (not available on all boxes). The individual adopts a sitting position on the floor with their legs straight. Shoes should be removed and feet should be flat against the sit and reach board. The slider (if available) should be set to 14 cm to be in line with the toes. The individual reaches forward and pushes the slider as far as possible. The score is recorded in centimetres and compared to the ratings below.

33 Muscular endurance test - abdominal curl conditioning test (sit-up bleep test) The test for muscular endurance involves the following protocol: Equipment: partners for each participant, CD of test (NCF abdominal conditioning test), gym mat. Individual lies on the mat in sit-up position, partner supports ankles. The participant sits up on the bleep and down on the bleep (staying in time). The test is maximal how many sit-ups can you do in time with the bleeps. It is also progressive the bleeps get faster. The score is how many sit-ups you complete. Power/explosive strength (anaerobic power) test - vertical jump test (sergeant jump test) The test for leg power involves the following protocol: Equipment: wall ruler, usually 2 m. Feet flat, stand and push the wall ruler with the fingertips as high as possible. This provides the individual's 'zero point: Apply chalk (or something to make a mark) to the finger tips. From a standing position, the individual jumps as high as possible marking the ruler with the chalk. The observer records the height jumped in cm. Reaction time test - ruler drop test The test for reaction time involves the following protocol: Equipment: a metre ruler. One person holds the metre ruler at the zero point (vertically). The individual being tested places their thumb and index finger of their dominant hand around the ruler (not touching it) at 50 cm. Without warning the ruler is released. The individual being tested must react to the drop and catch the ruler as fast as they can (with their thumb and index finger). The score to be recorded is in cm how far from 50 cm the individual caught the ruler. The individual may have three attempts. Maximal strength test - one rep max test The test for one rep max involves the following protocol: Equipment: appropriate weights/resistance machine usually a bar bell or bench press machine. Lift a weight once using the correct technique. If completed, attempt a heavier weight until the heaviest weight the individual can possibly lift once is discovered (one correctly completed repetition). If a weight cannot be lifted a lighter weight should be used to calculate the maximum weight that can be lifted. One rep max test ratings using bench press. Take your 1 rep max weight for the bench press or leg press and divide it by your body weight. So, for example, if you were able to lift 300 lbs (136 kg) on the leg press and you weigh 175 lbs (80 kg), that equates to a score of 1.7. Strength - handgrip dynamometer test The test for strength involves the following protocol: Equipment: handgrip dynamometer. The dynamometer should be held in the individual's dominant hand. The arm should be at 90 degrees with the elbow against the body. Name and describe how each test is carried out (protocol). Answers are on page 177. Grip may need to be adjusted to size. Squeeze with maximum effort and record score. Repeat three times and record best score.

34 Speed test - 30 m speed test The protocol for this test involves: Equipment: two cones 30 m apart, tape measure, stopwatch. Use a flying start. The individual is timed running 30 m as fast as they can. Limitations of fitness testing Tests are often not sport specific and can be too general. For example, the ruler drop test is not something that is carried out in any sport. They do not replicate movements of activities very few sports involve direct running of 20 m up and down in a straight line like the multistage fitness test. They do not replicate competitive conditions required in sports major sporting events are performed under extreme pressure. Many of the tests can be repeated/retried. Many of the tests have questionable reliability. As most tests are maximal, the individual must try their hardest in the test to gain an accurate score, thus motivation levels must be high. Also, as a partner sometimes measures your score e.g. vertical jump test it is possible that they will get the scoring wrong. The tests must be carried out with the correct procedures and protocols, otherwise scores will not be accurate or valid. Validity and Reliable? Validity means that the test actually tests what it states it will test. A valid test is one which is appropriate for the sport. A thermometer is not a VALID way to measure heart rate it measures temperature. Reliability means that if the test is repeated, similar results can be gained. Measuring heart rate with your thumb is unreliable. Using 2 fingers at the carotid artery is more reliable. Using a heart rate monitor is most reliable. Qualitative and quantitative data Qualitative data refers to opinions. There does not need to be a score or number as such, it could simply be a subjective appraisal e.g. I did well in that test. An individual who scores level 12, bleep 3 in the multi-stage fitness test may well look at the outcome qualitatively (It was a good score but I could have done better) rather than just as a quantitative measure (level 12, bleep 3). Quantitative data deals with quantities. The measurement is classified as a number or a score. An individual may well look at the ruler drop test as a quantitative figure only The Relationship between health and fitness Key terms: Health A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. (Physical body, Mental mind, Social family and friends) ill health state of poor physical, mental and/or social well being Fitness The ability to meet/cope with the demands of the environment.

35 The Relationship between health and fitness If you are in a good state of fitness, you are more likely to be healthy certainly physically & mentally. Good fitness helps you to cope better with the demands of the environment and can decrease the chance of illness or disease. However, irrespective of how fit you become, there is always the potential to become unwell (poor health) The relationship can be summarised as; 1. Ill health can negatively affect fitness as individual may be too unwell to train leading to loss off fitness 2. Ill health may not affect fitness if athlete can still train 3. Increase in fitness can positively affect health maybe less likely to get certain illness or disease (physical) feel content/happy with yourself (mental) or meet new people/ make friends (social benefit). 4. Increased fitness CANNOT prevent you from contracting some illnesses & disease and your health may suffer. Components of fitness AGILITY Definition: the ability to move and change direction quickly (at speed) whilst maintaining control Example with justification: A footballer needs to change direction quickly when dribbling against/around a defender to get past them to avoid a tackle, pass, cross or shoot. Complete the following examples: A netball player needs agility when.because. A badminton player needs agility when..because. A 100m sprinter doesn t need agility because. BALANCE The maintenance of the centre of mass over the base of support. 2 Types; Static (balancing whilst still) Dynamic balance (maintaining balance whilst moving). A gymnast needs static balance when they perform a handstand because otherwise they will fall over, lose marks and may get injured. A snowboarder needs dynamic balance when they go over bumps because they may fall over.

36 Cardio-vascular endurance The ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen to the working muscles. Also called aerobic power Linked to stamina being able to exercise whilst delaying the onset of fatigue. Important for long events, that use aerobic energy system (use oxygen) A marathon runner needs cardio-vascular endurance because they run for over 2 hours and need to be able to keep going at a certain speed and finish the event. A javelin thrower doesn t need cardio-vascular endurance because javelin is over in a few seconds and relies on speed and power. Co-ordination The ability to use different (two or more) parts of the body together smoothly and efficiently. Involves effective interaction of body parts e.g. eyes and hands hand-eye co-ordination hitting a cricket ball A.needs co-ordination when they.. because.. Flexibility The range of movement possible at a joint Different types of joint allow more movement ball & socket allows more than a hinge Better flexibility can benefit an athlete because less change of injury also a performer may be able to perform a more difficult technique. A.needs flexibility when they.. because.. Muscular endurance Ability of a muscle or muscle group to undergo repeated contractions avoiding fatigue. Similar to dynamic strength Required for repeated forceful movements A.needs muscular endurance when they.. because.. Power The product of strength and speed. Also known as explosive strength or anaerobic power Power = strength x speed All of short duration A.needs power when they.. because.. Reaction Time The time taken to initiate a response to a stimulus E.G. Stimulus = sound of gun response = starting to sprint A 100m sprinter needs reaction time when they.. because.. A marathon runner doesn t need reaction time because.. Speed The maximum rate at which an individual is able to perform a movement or cover a distance in a period of time. Putting the body parts through actions as quickly as possible Speed = distance time Speed is needed in (choose a game) when the player. because.

37 Strength The ability to overcome a resistance. Can be maximal, explosive, static or dynamic Maximal largest force possible in a single maximal contraction (tested using one rep max) Dynamic AKA muscular endurance repeated contractions Explosive AKA power strength x speed Static The ability to hold a body part in a static position. Muscle length stays the same. Maximum force that can be applied to an immovable object. Involves an isometric contraction. e.g. rugby scrummaging. Strength DYNAMIC speed is needed in..when the person. because. EXPLOSIVE speed is needed in..when the person. because. STATIC speed is needed in..when the person. because. Training methods. Circuit Continuous Fartlek Plyometrics Interval Stretching Altitude weight Weight training Weight training the use of weights/resistance to cause adaptation of the muscles. One repetition (or rep) is completing one lift of the weight (up and down). One set is the completion of a number of reps. Can be used by anyone Can involve the use of free weights, resistance machines or any object which can safely be lifted. It allows individuals to use and therefore train individual muscles/muscle groups Can be designed to suit an individual's needs. A tennis player may well use weights to improve the muscles of the upper body and to increase power through shots. A marathon runner may use weights on the lower body to improve muscular endurance in the legs. Safety Correct technique, e.g. the back should not be bent when picking weights up. If free weights are being used, a 'spotter can be used to help in the initial lift, putting the weight down or to assist If the individual starts to struggle to lift the weight. Children (?) should not lift heavy weights as they can damage growing bones. A thorough warm up should be completed before lifting weights. A period of rest should follow every set Calculating the correct intensity for weight training In order to calculate the correct intensity, it is important that the person training knows what muscles they aim to train and how they wish to train them. Strength/ Power: High weight/ low rep: Muscular endurance: Low weight/ high rep: One rep max Calculating your one rep max is the first part of working out a suitable intensity of weight to lift. Once you know your one rep max you can adopt the following principles: Strength/power training involves lifting heavy weights with a low number of reps: This involves lifting over 70 per cent of your one rep max with approximately three sets of 4-8 reps. E.g. if a one rep max for bench press is 100 kg then the individual may well lift a 70 kg barbell, completing 3 sets of 6 reps (to improve strength).

38 Principles of Training Specificity Making training specific to the sport being played/movements used/muscles used/energy system(s) used. Progressive overload Gradual increase of the amount of overload so that fitness gains occur, but without potential for injury. Reversibility Losing fitness levels when you stop exercising. Tedium Boredom that can occur from training the same way every time. Variety is needed. Explain how specificity can be applied to training for a half marathon? Should involve running because this is what you are doing in a half marathon Should mainly involve muscles of the legs such as quadriceps as this is mainly what is used to run Might involve upper body but much less than legs used less with distance running Should train cardiovascular fitness as this is the main component of fitness which is used on a half marathon Should train the AEROBIC energy system mainly as this is what is used in a half marathon At elite level some ANAEROBIC training would be included for the fast finish or if an opponent varies the speed during the race Continuous training / fartlek training would be the best methods of training for a half marathon Explain how progressive overload can be applied to the beginner runner (think about FITT)? Frequency increased start to run more often per week 3 times per week Intensity increased start to run faster complete 9 minute 30 s miles Time increased run for longer run for 40 minutes or for 4 miles Type changed change from steady running (continuous) to mixed intensity (fartlek) OR add in some hills OR change from road (easier) to cross country (harder) or sand (very hard) Explain how reversibility might occur for the runner? They might lose motivation and miss a training session and only run once in the week OR go slower OR not run as far They might become injured a sprained ankle might stop them running for several weeks They might become ill a heavy cold might stop them running for several days Explain how tedium could be avoided for the runner? Different training methods add in circuit training Different coaches someone for fitness, someone else for tactical Different locations to train travel to the coast Abroad/ different weather training camp in Spain Fun use music/ use a different sport in warm Types of training There are many different types of training. However, they each have their benefits and specific purposes that match specific sporting needs. Remember: Fitness tests actually test a component of fitness. A one-off test does not train the component of fitness. Training types, e.g. continuous training, actually train a component of fitness.

39 Circuit training Definition: A series of exercises performed one after the other with a rest in between. Circuit training is a flexible form of training in that it can be organised in a way to train many different components of fitness or to train a specific aspect, e.g. a circuit could be organised to train various components of fitness required by rugby players (speed, power, strength, etc.). Circuit training involves different exercises being organised in different areas (or stations). Each station can be completely different from the next. Completion of all of the stations is called 'a circuit. In order to organise circuit training, you need to consider many points: What is it that you hope to achieve, e.g. to improve one component of fitness or several different ones? How much space and equipment is available? How much work and time should each station have and how much time should be allocated to rest between stations? This is known as the 'work to rest ratio: It is perhaps most common that a circuit is designed to train different components of fitness and work on different muscles/body parts. The stations could well make use of shuttles, step-ups, sit-ups, squat jumps, burpees, squat jumps, etc. Advantages and disadvantages of Circuit Training Advantages: Exercises chosen can be simple to complex. The circuit can be manipulated to train different things, e.g. repeated contraction of a muscle/muscle group to train muscular endurance. It can be varied to suit fitness level/age, etc. It is easy to monitor and alter progressive overload can be applied by altering the work/rest ratio. Disadvantages: An appropriate amount of space is required. It may require specialist equipment, e.g. a medicine ball, benches. It is difficult to gauge an appropriate work/rest ratio at the start Continuous training Definition: Continuous training exercising for a sustained period of time without rest. It improves cardiovascular fitness. Sometimes referred to as 'steady state' training. Definition: Steady state exercise working continuously at the same intensity. Continuous training involves any activity that can be sustained without rest and repeated over and over e.g. running, walking, rowing and swimming. Continuous training is used to improve cardio-vascular endurance and involves working at a constant rate or intensity. This is often referred to as 'steady state exercise An untrained individual will continuously work quite slowly, whereas an elite athlete will be able to continuously work at a higher intensity. N.B. Generally speaking, continuous training involves working without rests, for 20 minutes or more. A long steady state swim or run can be completed continuously. Advantages and disadvantages of continuous training Advantages: It can be done with little or no equipment, e.g. simply go for a run. It improves aerobic fitness. Running can be done virtually anywhere. It is simple to do keep doing the same movement over and over. Disadvantages: It can be boring/tedious. It can cause injury due to repetitive contractions. It can be time consuming. It does not always match the demands of the sport, e.g. in basketball the players do not run at one speed continuously.

40 Continuous training Using Aerobic Training Zone Continuous training is intended to work the aerobic energy system. The difficulty or intensity should be hard enough to stress the body but with a suitable level of oxygen intake to ensure the exercise is 'aerobic'. To do this, it is most common to use your heart rate as a guide. This is known as working at your 'aerobic training zone'. In simple terms, you use your heart rate to tell you if you are working hard enough and prolonged continuous training makes your body more efficient at using oxygen. Calculating the correct intensity for continuous training As previously mentioned, calculating the aerobic training zone involves using your heart rate as a guide. This involves calculating your maximum heart rate in beats per minute and working at a percentage of this: Calculate maximum heart rate (220 minus age). Calculate aerobic training zone (60-80 per cent of maximal heart rate). Calculating aerobic training zone For a 45-year-old male; Calculate maximum heart rate (220 minus age): Calculate aerobic training zone (60-80 per cent of maximal heart rate). Calculate maximum heart rate (220 minus age): (age) = 175 Calculate aerobic training zone (60-80 per cent of maximal heart rate). 10% = % = % = per cent of 175 = beats per minute. Thus when training continuously, the heart rate should remain between 105 and 140 beats per minute. Calculate the aerobic training zone for a 16 year old? Calculate maximum heart rate (220 minus age): (age) = 204 Calculate aerobic training zone (60-80 per cent of maximal heart rate). 10% = % = % = per cent of 204 = beats per minute.

41 Fartlek training Definition: Fartlek Swedish for speed play. Periods of fast work with intermittent periods of slower work. Often used in running, i.e. sprint, jog, walk, jog, sprint, etc. Like continuous training, fartlek training is generally used to improve cardio-vascular endurance. It is more varied than continuous training as the speed and intensity is varied. It is also known as 'speed play' and normally involves running. Fartlek training involves: The speed being altered throughout e.g. sprint, jog, walk, jog, sprint Can include exercises being incorporated into the activity Running on different terrains e.g. running on the flat, on hills, etc. Altering the intensity as this can allow the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to be Advantages and disadvantages of Fartlek Advantages: It can be altered easily to suit the individual. It can be completed relatively quickly. It can improve the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. It can be done with little or no equipment, e.g. simply go for a run. Running can be done virtually anywhere. Disadvantages: It can be boring/ tedious. Interval training (high intensity interval training) Definition: Interval training A training method that incorporates periods of work followed by periods of rest, e.g. work, rest, work, rest. Interval training (high intensity interval training) Definition: HIIT High Intensity Interval Training: an exercise strategy alternating periods of short intense anaerobic exercise with less intense recovery periods. Is the name given to any type of training that involves alternating periods of work with periods of rest. The intensity of interval training can be altered to suit the individual by altering the time working and the time resting. HIIT basically means: short bursts of extreme effort with even shorter rest periods a 2:1 work ratio is often used, e.g. 30 seconds work, 15 seconds rest. The higher the intensity of the work period, the shorter the duration, e.g per cent effort cannot be carried out for long. An example HIIT session for a beginner is shown below: Use: 30 seconds of work with 15 seconds of rest, working at 90 per cent of maximal effort. Perform press-ups, sit-ups, tricep dips, lunges, gluteal kicks or burpees. For example, 30 seconds of press-ups followed by 15 seconds of rest. Repeat three times. Advantages and disadvantages of HIIT Advantages: It burns body fat and calories quickly. It can be altered easily to suit the individual. It can be completed relatively quickly. It can improve the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. Disadvantages: Extreme work can lead to injury. High levels of motivation are needed to complete the work. It can lead to dizziness and feelings of nausea.

42 Use of interval training Interval training can be altered to suit the needs of a performer. HIIT involves short high intensity periods of work that improves the.anaerobic system. HIIT also has benefits for the aerobic system. You can incorporate some sessions of sport-specific HIIT work. For example: sprints or high intensity dribbling for football players vertical jumps for volleyball and basketball players Heavy bag interval work for boxers. You can also vary the length of the intervals. High intensity anaerobic intervals can last anywhere from 10 to 60 seconds. Low intensity and more aerobic intervals can last several minutes. Intervals should involve exercises and movements which are specific to the sport and intensity should match the intensity of the sport, e.g. high intensity sprints are fine if the sport requires some high intensity sprinting! Plyometric training Plyometrics is a type of training that is used to increase power (strength x speed). It typically takes the form of bounding, hopping or jumping but can include medicine ball work, 'jump and clap' pressups and box work. The aim of plyometrics is to use your body weight and gravity to stress the muscles involved. As an example, if we use box jumping: Athlete using box jumping to increase their leg power 1 The athlete jumps off the box. 2 As they land their quadriceps lengthen (eccentric contraction). 3 This stores 'elastic energy' which can then be released through a further immediate jump. 4 The second jump (using the stored elastic energy) makes use of a stronger concentric contraction. 5 Thus the eccentric contraction has caused a stronger concentric contraction. Plyometrics can be used by any athlete who requires power. A basketball player or a triple jumper may well use plyometrics to increase their leg power for jumping. A 100m sprinter may improve their start. can result in injury due to the stress placed on the muscles and joints.