BIOLOGY Bones and Muscles Chpt. 7 Terms

Transcription

1 BIOLOGY Bones and Muscles Chpt. 7 Terms Define each term. For words that have multiple definitions, use the definition that would apply to the content of this chapter. 1. cartilage 2. ligament 3. tendon 4. diaphysis 5. epiphysis 6. fracture 7. ossification 8. osteoblast 9. osteoclast 10. arthritis 11. joint 12. sprain 13. strain 14. fascia 15. neurotransmitter 16. atrophy 17. hypertrophy 1

2 Biology: Bones to Know Frontal Parietal Occipital Temporal Mandible Maxilla Vertebrae o Cervical Axis Atlas o Thoracic o Lumbar o Sacrum o Coccyx Scapula Clavicle Ribs Sternum Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Pelvic bone Femur Patella Fibula Tibia Tarsals o Calcaneus o Talus Metatarsals Phalanges 2

3 Muscles to Know Biceps brachii Brachialis Deltoid Erector spinae Extensors External obliques Flexors Gastrocnemius Gluteus maximus Gluteus medius Hamstring Infraspinatus Intercostals Latissimus dorsi Masseter Pectoralis major Quadriceps femoris Rectus abdominus Sartorius Soleus Sternocleidomastoid Subscapularis Supraspinatus Temporalis Teres minor Tibialis anterior Trapezius Triceps brachii 3

4 Anatomy of the Skeletal System Chapter 7 Skeletal System Facts 206 bones in an adult (~ 350 cartilaginous bones as a developing baby) Skeleton reaches full maturity by age Supports the body and protect vital organs Manufactures blood cells at a rate of about 2 million per second Allows Stores excess minerals primarily calcium and phosphorus Ligaments connect bone to bone Tendons connect bone to muscle 2 broad divisions axial and appendicular Axial Skeleton Includes the head, spine, and thorax 80 bones total Primary function is to support and protect the internal organs Bones of the Head Cranial Bones o Made of 8 bones parietal (2), temporal (2), frontal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid o Fit tightly together without moveable joints 4

5 o One purpose is to protect the brain and other organs located in the cranium o When born, joints are not fused instead, connected by cartilage called fontanels (makes the soft spot ) o Skull growth is not complete until age four o Areas where bones join are the sutures o Jagged edge of sutures gives added strength Facial Bones o Made of 14 bones maxilla (2), zygomatic (2), palatine (2), nasal (2), lacrimal (2), inferial nasal concha (2), mandible, vomer o Maxilla and palatine form upper jaw and the roof of the mouth o Mandible forms the lower jaw only moveable bone in the skull Auditory Bones Made of 6 bones malleus (2), incus (2), stapes (2) Also known as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup Smallest bones in the body Necessary for hearing Hyoid (1) Only bone that does not articulate with another bone U-shaped A point of articulation for many muscles (tongue, swallowing muscles) Found just above the larynx 5

6 Bones of the Spine Vertebral Column (General) Vertebrae plural; vertebra - singular Made of 26 vertebrae (originally 34 vertebrae 5 sacral bones fuse together and 4-5 coccygeal bones fuse together) Intervertebral disks allow the spine to bend and act as shock absorbers made of cartilage Have a hollow area for the spinal cord to pass through Cervical Vertebrae First 7 vertebrae make up the neck C1 atlas Point where the head is connected to the spine Allows the head to pivot up and down C2 axis Located right below the atlas Allows the head to swivel left to right Other cervical vertebrae allow the head to tilt and move in other directions Thoracic Vertebrae Made of 12 vertebrae Larger than the cervical vertebrae Attachment point for the ribs 6

7 Lumbar Vertebrae Made of 5 vertebrae Largest vertebrae Form the lower back Support the weight of the entire upper body Sacral Vertebrae (or Pelvic Vertebrae) Made of 5 vertebrae fused together (in adults) Also called the sacrum Joined to the hips to form the base of the spine Coccyx Made of 4 vertebrae fused together (in adults) Also called the tailbone Used for muscle attachment and a shock absorber for the spine Curvature of the Spine Four curves cervical lordosis thoracic kyphosis lumbar lordosis sacral/coccygeal curve Provide additional strength and flexibility Can have excessive curvature 7

8 Scoliosis excessive lateral curvature Kyphosis excessive thoracic curvature (humpback) Lordosis excessive lumbar curvature (swayback) Bones of the Chest Ribs Made of 24 bones (12 pairs) Attach to the thoracic vertebrae in the back and by cartilage to the sternum in front (the first 7 pairs) Cartilage is flexible so the ribs can expand and contract during breathing 3 types of ribs True ribs first 7 pairs, attach directly to the sternum False ribs next 3 pairs, attach to the lowest true rib by cartilage Floating ribs last 2 pairs, do not attach to the sternum at all, also considered false ribs Sternum Known as the breast bone Contains the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process Last bone to ossify Appendicular Skeleton General Information Includes the shoulders, hips, arms, and legs 126 bones total 8

9 Primary function is support and to enable movement Bones of the Shoulders Consists of 4 bones Also known as the pectoral girdle Scapulae (2) Singular is scapula Also known as the shoulder blades Contain sockets for the arms Don t rigidly attach to the axial skeleton Only articulates with the scapula and sternum Clavicle (2) Also known as the collar bone Articulates with the scapula and sternum Bones of the Upper Extremities Consists of 60 bones Only 6 are in the arms with the rest in the wrists, hands, and fingers Humerus (2) Makes the upper arm Articulates with the scapula, Forearm Consists of 4 bones 9

10 Radius (2) Located on the lateral side of the forearm (thumb side) Rotates over the ulna Ulna (2) Located on the medial side of the forearm (little finger side) Does not move when arm is rotated Has a hook to attach to humerus Wrist The bones as a group are known as the carpals Consists of 16 bones (8 on each side) Pisiform Lunate Scaphoid Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate Triquetrium The bones are arranged in two rows of 4 This allows the wrist to bend in various directions Hand and fingers Consists of 38 bones 10

11 .Metacarpals These make up the palm of the hand There are 10 of these bones (5 on each side) The metacarpal that makes up the thumb is held by ligaments that give it great mobility.phalanges 28 phalanges make up the fingers (14 on each side) 3 in each finger and 2 for each thumb Bones of the Pelvic Girdle The pelvic girdle is made of a ring of bones: the sacrum makes up the back and the sides are made up of a pair of bones called the coxae Each coxae is really three bones fused together: ilium, ischium, pubis Coxae, coxal bone, and pelvic bone all refer to the same thing. Bones of the Lower Extremities Similar in basic layout to the upper extremities Bones are thicker and stronger than in the upper extremities Each lower limb has 30 bones 4 in the leg and 26 in the foot and ankle Bones of the Leg Femur Makes up the thigh Longest bone in the body Strongest bone in the body 11

12 Attaches to the pelvic girdle at the hip joint Tibia One of the bones in the lower leg The main weight bearing bone of the leg Extends from the knee to the ankle Fibula Much thinner than the tibia Found on the lateral side Does not attach to the femur Patella.Kneecap Found on top of the joint between the femur and the tibia Serves as a brace for the patellar tendon to increase leverage on the joint Also helps to protect the knee joint from injury Bones of the Ankle and Foot Tarsals 14 bones (7 on each side) make up the ankles Talus Calcaneus (heel) Navicular Cuneiform (3) Cuboid Thick and strong to support the weight of the body Talus connects with the tibia 12

13 Metatarsals Make up the base of the foot Made of 10 bones (5 each side) Forms the framework of the arches of the foot Phalanges Made of 28 bones Makes up the toes Arranged like the phalanges in the fingers 2 in the big toe and 3 in every other toe 13

14 Name Date Per Biology Sect. 7.3 Pg Describe the four general categories of bones and give an example of each. a. Long bone b. Short bone c. Flat bone d. Irregular bone 2. Label the diagram with the following terms: articular cartilage, compact bone, diaphysis, epiphysis, medullary cavity, periosteum, spongy bone 3. Where are red marrow and yellow marrow found in a bone and what is the function of each? 4. Describe the structure and purpose of hydroxyapatite and collagen in the construction of bone. 14

15 5. Explain how bone cells are maintained and renovated. 6. Listed below are vitamins and minerals important for healthy bones. For each nutrient, identify sources of the nutrient and what could result if you were deficient in the nutrient. a. Calcium b. Phosphorus c. Vitamin D d. Vitamin A e. Vitamin C 7. Explain how exercise can aid in bone health. Include an explanation of Wolff s law. 8. Explain the given fractures. a. Simple fracture b. Compound fracture c. Spiral fracture d. Greenstick fracture e. Transverse fracture f. Comminuted fracture 9. Summarize in your own words the four main steps that occur when bone heals. 15

16 Types of Joints Joint Classifications The three types of joints that we will look at are: 1. Fibrous joints 2. Cartilaginous joints 3. Synovial joints Fibrous Joints These joints are also called "fixed" or "immoveable" joints, because they do not move. These joints have no joint cavity and are connected via fibrous connective tissue. The skull bones are connected by fibrous joints. Cartilaginous Joints These joints also have no joint cavity and the bones are connected tightly to each other with cartilage. These joints only allow a small amount of movement, so are also called "partly" or "slightly moveable" joints. The vertebrae are examples of cartilaginous joints. Synovial Joints Most of the joints in the body are synovial joints. These joints are "freely moveable" and are characterized by being surrounded by an articular capsule which contains the synovial fluid. Synovial fluid lubricates the joints, supplies nutrients to the cartilage and it contains cells that remove microbes and debris within the joint cavity. Because of the larger range of movements of these joints, there is an increased risk of injury like dislocations. Synovial joints are located predominantly in limbs. Many synovial joints also have ligaments either inside or outside the capsule. 16

17 Different Types of Synovial Joints Hinge - movement occurs primarily in a single plane eg elbow, knee, ankle, interphalangeal joints. Ball and socket - allows movement around 3 axes - flexion / extension, abduction / adduction and rotation, eg shoulder, hip. Pivot - a ring of bone and ligament surrounds the surface of the other bone - movement in one plane, primarily rotation eg between the atlas and axis (ie the cervical vertebrae numbers 1 and 2) and the radius and ulna. Gliding - Flat bone surfaces allow side to side and backwards and forwards movements eg between carpals, tarsals, between the sternum and the clavicle (sterno-clavicular) and the scapula and the clavicle. Condyloid (also called ellipsoid) can move left, right, up, down; found between phalanges and metacarpals Saddle joints rotation and some lateral movement; where the thumb meets the carpals 17

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19 Joint Problems Degenerative conditions Arthritis Inflammation of the joint Osteoarthritis wear and tear causes the joint to become inflamed Rheumatoid arthritis the body s immune system attacks a joint Joint Injuries Sprain stressing of the ligaments Dislocation bone pops out of alignment Torn ligaments a severe sprain 19

20 Muscle Classification The human body consists of three different types of muscles: 1. Skeletal a. Over 600 skeletal muscles in your body b. Primarily attached to bone c. Composed of muscle cells (AKA muscle fibers) which are long and narrow like strands of spaghetti d. Contract and relax quickly e. Voluntary (you control their movement) f. Also called striated muscle because of stripes of protein fibers 2. Smooth a. Short and wide muscle cells b. Slow, long, powerful contractions c. Found in internal organs (esophagus, stomach, intestines, blood vessels) or valves (sphincters) d. Involuntary 3. Cardiac a. Only found in the heart b. Striated c. Contracts continually without tiring d. Involuntary Important Muscles of the Human Body 1) Movement of the Head and Face a) sternocleidomastoid i) Connects the temporal bones to the clavicle and sternum ii) Responsible for movement of the head iii) When both contract, head is bowed iv) When one contracts, moves head to the side b) temporalis i) Connect the mandible to the cranium ii) Function is to close the jaw c) masseter i) Connect the mandible to the cranium ii) Function is to close the jaw 20

21 2) Movement of the Shoulder and Ribs a) intercostals i) Located between the ribs ii) Contract lift the rib cage and allow thoracic cavity to expand iii) Relax lower the rib cage and force air out of the lungs b) trapezius i) Connects the occipital to the scapula and clavicle ii) Tilts the head up (look at the ceiling) iii) Allows shoulders to be pulled back and shrug shoulders 3) Movement of the Upper Arms a) pectoralis major i) Connects the sternum to the humerus ii) Push arms forward b) deltoid i) Covers the shoulders ii) Connects the clavicle and scapula with the humerus iii) Lifts the arms away from the body c) latissimus dorsi i) Connect the humerus to the lumbar vertebrae ii) Draws the arms to the rear d) infraspinatus i) Connects scapula to humerus ii) Extends and laterally rotates arm e) subscapularis i) Connects scapula to humerus ii) Extends and medially rotates arm f) supraspinatus i) Connects scapula to humerus ii) Abducts arm (moves it away from the body) g) teres minor i) Connects scapula to humerus ii) Adducts (moves it toward the body) and laterally rotates arm h) Muscles d-g make up the rotator cuff. Also called the SITS muscles 4) Movement of the Lower Arms a) biceps brachii i) Attach the scapula to the radius 21

22 ii) Responsible for flexing the arm and supinating b) brachialis i) Connects the humerus to the ulna ii) Flexes the arm c) triceps brachii i) Attach scapula and humerus to ulna ii) Responsible for extending the arm 5) Movement of the Hands a) Flexors i) Found on the anterior (forearm side) of the lower arm ii) Flex fingers and wrist iii) Tendons go from muscles to each joint b) Extensors i) Found on the posterior side of the lower arm ii) Extend wrist and fingers 6) Movement of the Trunk a) rectus abdominus i) Extend from the bottom of the sternum to the front of the pelvic girdle ii) Used to sit up iii) 6-pack muscle b) external oblique i) Connect ribs to pelvis, but run on the side of the body ii) Necessary for good posture, giving birth, eliminating waste, heavy breathing c) erector spinae i) Extend from the upper back to the pelvis ii) Necessary for holding the body upright 7) Movement of the Upper Legs a) gluteus maximus i) Connect the pelvis and the femur ii) Extends the hip joint and laterally rotates b) gluteus medius i) Connects the pelvis to the femur ii) Medially rotates thigh 22

23 8) Movement of the Lower Legs a) quadriceps femoris i) A group of four muscles (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis) that connect the pelvis to the tibia via the patellar tendon ii) Located on the front of the thigh iii) Extends the leg iv) One of them also flexes the thigh b) hamstrings i) A group of three muscles (biceps femoris, semimembranous, semitendinosus) that connect the pelvis to the tibia and fibula, located on the back of the thigh ii) Function is to bend the leg c) sartorius i) Extends diagonally from the front of the pelvis, across the upper leg, to the tibia ii) Lifts the lower leg and turns it inward 9) Movement of the Feet a) gastrocnemius i) Located on the upper back part of the calf ii) Connects the femur to the calcaneus via the Achilles tendon iii) Points the toe down b) soleus i) Located deep to the gastrocnemius ii) Also functions to point the toe c) tibialis anterior i) Connects the tibia to the tarsals ii) Pulls the foot up. Antagonist a muscle that opposes another muscle Name one antagonist of each muscle. biceps brachii triceps brachii sternocleidomastoid trapezius pectoralis major latissimus dorsi flexors extensors 23 rectus abdominus erector spinae quadriceps femoris hamstrings quadriceps femoris gluteus maximus gastrocnemius tibialis anterior

24 Skeletal Muscle Design Sect. 7.6 Pg What is the purpose of the fascia? What does it form? 2. Define/describe these terms: a. Muscle fiber b. Endomysium c. Fascicle d. Perimysium e. Epimysium 3. What runs between all of the fascicles? 4. Muscles cells (muscle fibers) a. Are surrounded by b. Contain more than one c. Contain unusually large number of d. Contains contraction machinery called 5. Myofibrils a. A single muscle cell can contain b. Myofibrils contain millions of overlapping protein segments called i. Myosin ii. Actin c. Myosin and actin work together like a to shorten the cell. 6. Two structures work together to trigger the myofibrils to contract: 7. Muscle contraction a. Caused by b. Neuromuscular junction c. Neurotransmitter 8. Motor Unit a. Purpose 24

25 b. Dexterity c. Strength d. 9. The all-or-none principle is 10. Prolonged movement is accomplished by Muscle Strength and Weakness Sect. 7.7 pg Hypertrophy is. 2. Atrophy is. 3. At what age will some muscle fibers begin to shrink? 4. The phrase use it or lose it could refer to. 5. List 3 reasons that could cause muscle atrophy. (Not all are in the book) a. b. c. 6. Define: a. Mitochondria b. Myoglobin c. Myofibrils 7. Red fibers contain more mitochondria and myoglobin than white fibers and less myofibrils. How does this structure affect what they do? 8. What is another name for red fibers? 25

26 9. White fibers contain more myofibrils than red fibers and less mitochondria and myoglobin. How does this structure affect what they do? 10. What is another name for white fibers? 11. List three activities that would need well-developed white fibers. a. b. c. 12. List three activities that would need well-developed red fibers. a. b. c. 13. List three benefits of exercise to your muscles (listed in the book) a. b. c. Some terms to know: Strain a stretching or tearing of muscle or tendon Muscle fatigue the decline in ability of a muscle to generate force; can be caused by vigorous exercise Cramp an involuntary and forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax Muscle tone muscles are slightly contracted, even at rest; keeps muscles primed and ready for action 26