The Sociological Perspective and Research Process:

Transcription

1 The CSS Pint The Scilgical Perspective and Research Prcess: 1. (4) Scilgy is the study f man and sciety that seeks t determine their general characteristics, especially as fund in cntemprary civilizatins. A sciety is a large scial grup that shares the same gegraphical territry and is subject t the same plitical authrity and dminant cultural expectatins. 2. (3-5) Scilgist C. Wright Mills described scilgical reasning as The Scilgical Imaginatin - The ability t see the relatinship between individual experiences and the larger sciety. It helps us distinguish between persnal trubles and scial (r Public) issues. C.Wright Mills Pwer elite - elite wh cmmand the resurces f vast bureaucratic rganizatins that have cme t dminate industrial scieties. These are the key peple in the majr institutins f mdern sciety: 1. Gvernment 2. Military 3. Crpratins Thus pwer is rted in authrity, an attribute f scial rganizatins, nt f individuals. These bureaucracies have becme enlarged and centralized and are a means f pwer never befre equaled in human histry. Bureaucracies are the key t understanding mdern sciety. 3. (5-8) The Imprtance f a Glbal Scilgical Imaginatin. The Wrld s high-incme cuntries are natins with highly industrialized ecnmies; technlgically advanced industrial, administrative and service ccupatins; and relatively high levels f natinal and persnal incme. Middle incme cuntries are natins with industrializing ecnmies, particularly in urban areas, and mderate levels f natinal and persnal incme. Lw incme cuntries are primarily agrarian natins with little industrializatin and lw levels f natinal and persnal incme. 4. (8-9) The Develpment f Scilgical Thinking did nt take hld until the 19 th century and the scial upheaval brught abut by industrializatin and urbanizatin. Industrializatin is the prcess by which scieties are transfrmed frm dependence n agriculture and handmade prducts t an emphasis n manufacturing and related industries. Urbanizatin is the prcess by which peple mve frm rural pen farms t cnvluted cities. 9. (9-14) Early Thinkers: A cncern with Scial Order and Stability William Thmas (Nt in Text Bk) 4 basic human wishes The desire fr new experiences The desire fr recgnitin The desire fr mastery The desire fr security. Objected t seeing peple as playthings f frces ver which they had n cntrl. (ppsite f Marxist thery) Scial Change is interplay between attitudes and values. The cause f a scial r individual phenmenn is never anther scial r individual phenmenn alne, but always a cmbinatin f a scial and an individual phenmenn. The Typlgy f Human Actrs Philistine always a cnfrmist, usually accepting scial traditin in its mst stable elements Bhemian whse pssibilities f evlutin are nt clsed, simply because his character remains unfrmed? (Rebel) Creative man des nt simply act within the grves f traditin, nr is he indiscriminately rebellius when it cmes t scietal requirements; rather, with a judicius blend f innvatin and traditin he clears a new path thrugh the frest f the custmary and can hence be a creative guide in effrts t bring abut scial change. Thmas Therem - If the situatin is defined as real, it is real in its cnsequences.

2 Auguste Cmte cined the term scilgy, thugh he never cnducted scilgical research. Heavily influenced by the French Revlutin. Therized that scieties cntain scial statics (frces fr scial rder and stability) and scial dynamics (frces fr cnflict and change). The scientific methd shuld be applied t the bjective study f sciety. Psitivism - a belief that the wrld can best be understd thrugh scientific inquiry. Tw dimensins f psitivism Methdlgical - the applicatin f scientific knwledge t bth physical and scial phenmena. Scial and plitical - The use f such knwledge t predict the likely results f different plicies s that the best ne can be chsen. Curs de Philsphie Psitive Harriet Martineau translated Cmte s and cndensed Cmte s wrks in English, and was als an active scilgist. Advcated racial and gender equality. Create a science f sciety that wuld be grunded in empirical bservatins and widely accessible t peple. Sciety in America scial refrm Herbert Spencer s majr cntributin t scilgy was an evlutinary perspective n scial rder and scial change. Thery f General Evlutin, sciety, like a bilgical rganism, has varius interdependent parts (such as the family, the ecnmy, and the gvernment) that wrk t ensure the stability and survival f the entire sciety. Scieties develp a prcess f Struggle (fr existence) and fitness (fr survival) Scial Darwinsim - the belief that thse best adapted t their envirnment survive and prsper, whereas thse prly adapted die ut. Based n wh has the best tls. Emile Durkheim stressed that peple are the prduct f their scial envirnment and that behavir cannt be understd fully in terms f individual bilgical and psychlgical traits. The father f scilgy. (Structural Functinalist) Believed that the limits f human ptential are scial, nt bilgically based. Cncerned with functinal interrelatins between systems f beliefs and thught and the underlying scial structure. We use the wrd functin, in preference t end r purpse precisely because scial phenmena d nt generally exist fr the useful results they prduce. Scial facts are patterned ways f thinking and feeling, which exist utside the individual, but exert scial cntrl ver everyne. Scieties are built n scial facts. Anmie - a cnditin where scial cntrl becmes ineffective as a result f the lss f shared values and the sense f purpse in sciety. Caused by rapid scial change. It is nt a state f mind, but a prperty f the scial structure. (i.e. industrial revlutin) Egistic Suicide happens t peple wh are islated frm a sciety Altruistic Suicide happens t peple wh are deeply integrated int sciety (i.e. military leaders wh kill themselves after a battle defeat) Anmic suicide results frm a lack f scial cntrl Fatalistic suicide results frm excessive regulatin and ppressive (i.e. slaves) The Divisin f Labr in Sciety Elementary frms f Religius Life Karl Marx said that histry is a cntinuus clash between cnflicting ideas and frces. Believed that cnflict - especially class cnflict - is needed t prduce scial change and a better sciety. Uses histry as his empirical evidence. Peple make their wn histry, but nt exactly hw they please. Class cnflict is the struggle between the capitalist class (burgeisie wh wn r cntrl the means f prductin) and the wrking class (prletariat wh must sell their labr because they have n ther means t earn a livelihd). There is n scial mbility - whatever class yu are brn int, is the class yu remain in. The ideas f the ruling class are the ruling ideas. Ecnmics is the underlying frce in scial change. Alienatin is a feeling f pwerlessness and estrangement frm ther peple and frm neself. Man at wrk is alienated fr the bject he prduces, fr the prcess f prductin, frm himself, and frm the cmmunity f his fellws. Mney is the alienated essence f man s wrk and existence, the essence dminates him and he wrships it.

3 Scilgy shuld nt just be studied but als changed, because the status qu (that existing state f sciety) invlved the ppressin f mst f the ppulatin by a small grup f wealthy peple. Cmmunist Manifest (with Engles) Das Kapital Max Weber believed that ecnmic systems were heavily influenced by ther factrs in a sciety. Says that the research prcess shuld be value free s research shuld exclude the researcher s persnal values and ecnmic interests. Verstehen (German fr understanding r insight) Scilgists shuld use it t see the wrld as thers see it. (Empathic Understanding) Cncerned that bureaucracies (large rganizatins) were becming increasingly riented tward rutine administratin and specialized divisin f labr, which he be believed were destructive t human vitality and freedm. (anmie) This, nt class struggle, is the mst significant factr in determining the scial relatins between peple in industrial scieties. Types f Authrity Ratinal-legal authrity - authrity may be based n ratinal grunds and anchred in impersnal rules that have been legally enacted r cntractually established. Traditinal Authrity - is based n belief in the sanctity f traditins, r the eternal yesterday. It is nt cdified in impersnal rules but inheres in particular persns wh may either inherit it r be invested with it by a higher authrity. Charismatic authrity - rests n the appeal f leaders wh claim allegiance because f their extrardinary virtusity, whether ethical, heric, r religius. Pwer - The chance f a man, r a number f men t realize their wn will in cmmunal actin, even against the resistance f thers. prestige The Methdlgy f the Scial Sciences The Prtestant Ethic and the Spirit f Capitalism Wirtschaft and Gesellschaft Gerg Simmel therized sciety as a web f patterned interactins amng peple. The main purpse f scilgy is t examine the scial interactin within grups. (Symblic Interactinist) Scial interactins vary depending n the size f the grup. Said that dinner grups ver six became dysfunctinal. Dyad a scial grup cnsisting f tw Triad a scial grup f three Frmal Scilgy fcuses attentin n the recurring scial frms that underlie the varying cntent f scial interactin. Paradigms Distinguished between scial interactin (such as cperatin r cnflict) and the cntent f scial interactin in different cntexts (fr example, between leaders and fllwers). Jane Addams Hull Huse - funder f the mst famus settlement huses, in an impverished area f Chicag. Scial refrmer W.E.B. Du Bis said that a dual heritage creates cnflict fr peple f clr. Duble Cnsciusness is the identity cnflict f being a black (ethnic) and an American. NAACP The Suls f Black Flks The Philadelphia Negr he published a bk a year between n the relatinship between African Americans and whites Talctt Parsns Mst influential advcate f Structural Functinalism Instrumental tasks invlve leadership and decisin making respnsibilities fr the grup. Expressive tasks prvide emtinal supprt t the sciety Rbert Mertn Manifest functins are intended and/r vertly recgnized by the participants in a scial unit. Yu g t schl t learn. Latent Functins are unintended functins that are hidden and remain unacknwledged by participants. In schl yu als scially netwrk Charles Herbert Mead

4 Symblic Interactinism - The behavir f an individual can be understd in terms f the behavir f the whle scial grup f which he is a member, since his individual acts are invlved in larger, scial acts which g beynd him and implicate the ther members f that grup. Rle taking - Human cmmunicatin becmes pssible nly when the symbl aruses in ne s self what it aruses in the ther individual. 1. A child play s at being a dctr, teacher, mther, etc. in rder t cultivate I himself the ability t put him in the place f thers wh are significant t him. 2. Cnceptin f rles by assuming them in the imaginatin. Significant thers are thse persns whse care, affectin, and apprval are especially desired and wh are mst imprtant in the develpment f the self. Generalized ther refers t the child s awareness f the demands and expectatins f the sciety as a whle r f the Childs subculture. Charles Hrtn Cley Lking Glass Self Each t each a lking-glass - Reflects the ther that dth pass. As we see ur face, figure, and dress in the glass, and are interested in them because they are urs, and pleased r therwise with them accrding as they d r d nt answer t what we shuld like them t be, s in imaginatin we perceive in anther s mind sme thught f ur appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends, and s n, and are variusly affected by it. 1. The imaginatin f ur appearance t the ther persn, the imaginatin f his judgment f that appearance, and sme srt f self-feeling, such as pride r mrtificatin. Primary Grup - Peple are drawn away frm their individualistic prpensity t maximize their wn advantage and are permanently linked t their fellws by ties f sympathy and affectin. (I.e. Family, the play grup f children, and the neighbrhd.) Secndary grup - peple are related t ne anther because each derives a private benefit frm that interchange r interactin. Cntemprary Theretical Perspectives A Thery is a set f lgical statements that attempts t describe, explain, and (ccasinally) predict scial events. A perspective is an verall apprach r viewpint n a subject (i.e. Functinalist, cnflict, and symblic interactinist). Paradigm - A way f lking at the wrld Structural Functinalism [Macr] Studies large bdies - assumes scial cnsensus. Cnflict - Wh has the pwer [Macr] Symblic Interactinism - Hw peple cmmunicate and their symblic meanings. [Micr] Feminist - Evaluates the relatinship between males and females, wh has the pwer Pst mdern - Challenges all the abve and seeks t a decnstructin f all paradigms. 11. (15-16) Structural Functinalism is a macr level analysis examines whle scieties, large scale scial structures, and scial systems), S.F. is based n the assumptin that sciety is a stable, rderly system. 1. Characterized by scietal cnsensus, where the majrity share a cmmn set f values, beliefs, and behaviral expectatins. 2. Instrumental tasks - Talctt Parsns - Leadership / Decisin Making 3. Expressive tasks - Talctt Parsns - Emtinal Supprt fr grup 4. Manifest functins - Rbert Mertn - Intended (Schl is fr learning) 5. Latent Functins - Rbert Mertn - Unintended (Schl als teaches scial netwrking) 6. Dysfunctins are the undesirable cnsequences f any element f a sciety. Language unifies members f a sciety. 11. (16-18) Cnflict (macr level) perspectives are grups in sciety that engaged in a cntinuus pwer struggle. Max Weber recgnized the imprtance f ecnmic cnditins in prducing inequality and cnflict in sciety. He added Pwer and Prestige t inequality. Pwer is the ability f a persn within a scial relatinship t carry ut his r her wn will despite resistance frm thers Prestige is a psitive r negative scial estimatin f hnr. Branches f Cnflict Thery Ne Marxist - views struggle between the classes as inevitable and as a prime surce f scial change. Racial / Ethnic grups - Inequalities and the cntinued explitatin f members f sme racial/ethnic grups

5 Feminist perspective which fcuses n gender issues and has a whle categry f its wn. Limited in its fcus n scietal discrd and the divisiveness f culture. 12. (17-18) Feminist apprach directs attentin t wmen s experiences and the imprtance f gender as an element f scial structure. (An ffspring f the cnflict thery) Based n the belief that wman and men are equal. We live in a patriarchy a system in which men dminate wmen and things that are male r masculine are valued higher than thse female r feminine. Assumes that gender is scially created, rather than determined by ne s bilgical inheritance. 13. (18-20) Symblic Interactinist is a micr level analysis, which fcuses n small grups rather than large-scale scial structures. Sciety is the sum f the interactins f individuals and grups. Gerge Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer are credited with cining the term. Interactin - defined as immediate interactin between tw r mre peple using symblic interactin. A shrtcming is its veremphasis n harmny and cperatin. Symblic interactin ccurs when peple cmmunicate with symbls (i.e. facial gestures, psture, and tne f vice, handshake r a clenched fist). A Symbl is anything that meaningfully represents smething else. Desn t prvide insight int hw shared meanings are develped, and accunt fr the many situatins in which there is disagreement n meanings. 14. (20-21) Pstmdernist Perspectives, (macr and micr level) Pstmdernists reject all paradigms, as well as hw thse thinkers created the theries. Oppse grand narratives that characterize mdern thinking and believe that bundaries shuld nt be placed n academic fields, like philsphy, literature, art, and scial sciences. Theries emerge after WWII Pstmdern scieties are characterized by an infrmatin explsin and an ecnmy in which large numbers f peple either prvide r apply infrmatin, r they are emplyed in service jbs. Glbal Village, in which peple arund the wrld cmmunicate with ne anther by electrnic technlgies. 3 criticisms Lack f a clear cnceptualizatin f ideas. Tendency t critique ther perspectives as being grand narratives, whereas pstmdernists ffer their wn varieties f such narratives. Pstmdern analyses f culture lead t prfund pessimism abut the future. 13. (21-22) The Scilgical Research Prcess Research is the prcess f systematically cllecting infrmatin fr testing an existing thery r generating a new ne. Quantitative Research, the gal is scientific bjectivity, and the fcus is n data that can be measured numerically Uses mathematical statistics. Qualitative research, interpretive descriptins (wrds) rather than statistics (numbers) are used t analyze underlying meanings and patterns f scial relatinships. Hw it feels / experience. Empirical Wrk - Seen thrugh the senses - Knwable (Evidence Gathering) Anecdtal - secnd hand knwledge - fund frm anther persn A qualitative research is a study in which the researchers systematically analyzed the cntents f suicide ntes t determine recurring themes (such as feelings f despair r failure) 14. (22-27) The Cnventinal Research Mdel 1. Select tpic Operatinal Definitin is a precise definitin f a term in a hypthesis. 2. Define the research prblem 3. Review previus research Analyze what thers have dne befre Determine where gaps exist and nte mistakes t avid. 4. Frmulate hypthesis (if applicable) Hypthesis is a statement f the expected relatinship between tw r mre variables. Variable is any cncept with measurable traits r characteristics that can change r vary frm ne persn, time, situatin, r sciety t anther. An independent variable is presumed t be the cause f the relatinship

6 The dependent variable is assumed t be caused by the independent variable. 4. Chse Research Methd - Qualitative r Quantitative Survey, participant bservatin, experiment, unbtrusive measures 5. Cllect data Yu must decide what ppulatin will be bserved r questined and then carefully select a sample. A sample is the peple wh are selected frm the ppulatin t be studied. A representative sample is a selectin frm a larger ppulatin that has the characteristics f the whle ppulatin. Validity and reliability may be prblems in research data. Validity is hw well a studies research instrument accurately measures what it is suppsed t measure. Reliability is hw well the instrument gives cnsistent results when used with different peple at ne time r t the same peple ver time. 6. Analyze the data Analysis is the prcess thrugh which data are rganized s that cmparisns can be made and cnclusins drawn. SPSS (Cmputer prgram t cmpute statistics) Quantitive N VIVO (Cmputer prgram that lks at themes) Qualatative 7. Draw cnclusins First step in drawing cnclusins is t return t yur hypthesis r research bjective t clarify hw the data relate bth t the hypthesis and t the large issues being addressed. Nte the limitatins f the study (i.e. sample prblems, influence ver variables, variables that were unable t be measured. 8. Reprt Findings The reprt includes a review f each step in the research prcess in rder t make the study available fr replicatin. Replicatin is the ability fr an utside surce t investigate the study in the same way it was riginally cnducted. Durkheim cncluded that the suicide rate f a grup is a scial fact that cannt be explained in terms f the persnality traits f individuals. 15. (27-28) A Qualitative Research Mdel is mre likely t be used when the research questin des nt easily lend itself t numbers and statistical methds. As cmpared t a quantitive mdel, a qualitative apprach ften invlves a different type f research questin and a smaller number f cases. 16. (28-30) Research Methds are techniques fr systematically cnducting research. A Survey (Research) is a pll in which the researcher gathers facts r attempts t determine the relatinships amng facts. The mst widely used research methd. Researchers select a representative sample (small grup f respndents) frm a larger ppulatin. Respndents are peple wh prvide data fr analysis thrugh interviews r questinnaires. The data is cllected by using Questinnaires, which are printed research instrument cntaining a series f items t which subjects respnd. Mst cmmn technique is the self administered questinnaire which is mailed t a respndent s hme An interview is when an interviewer asks the respndent questins and recrds the answers. A structured interview is ne where the interviewer asks questins frm a standardized questinnaire. Multivariate analysis has mre than tw independent variables. (i.e. age, sex, incme level, and ther variables) Inaccurate Recall peple dn t remember the infrmatin required crrectly Scial Desirability will say the scially crrect thing, rather then what they really believe is real. Respnse set biased - happens when peple becme tired f taking lng surveys and just bubble in answers In secndary analysis, researchers use existing material and analyze data that were riginally cllected by thers. Secndary analysis includes cntent analysis - the systematic examinatin f cultural artifacts. (bks, diaries, pems, graffiti, mvies, TV shws, advertisements etc. are all cultural artifacts)

7 Field Research is the study f scial life in its natural setting: bserving and interviewing peple where they live, wrk and play. Creates Qualitative data which is best described verbally rather than numerically. The Scilgist bserving scial interactin as it ccurs may use participant bservatin - cllecting systematic bservatins while being part f the grup that the researcher is studying. Researcher may g native - be absrbed by the grup. Unbtrusive Measures - Peple are bserved with the researcher unseen t avid the Hawthrne Effect where peple perfrm better because they knw they are being watched. Anther apprach t field research is the ethngraphy - a study f the life f a grup f peple by researchers wh may live them ver a perid f years. An Experiment is a designed situatin in which the researcher studies the impact f certain variables n subject s attitudes r behavirs. Create real-life situatins in a cntrlled envirnment. The subjects are divided int tw grups. The experimental grup cntains the subjects wh are expsed t an independent variable (the experimental cnditin) t study its effect n them. The cntrl grup cntains the subjects wh are nt expsed t the independent variable. Placeb Causatin means that a change in ne variable is due t anther variable. Three cnditins are necessary t establish causatin 1. Crrelatin (the variables are related, that is they exist r ccur tgether) 2. Tempral pririty (time rder, if variable A is said t cause variable B, then A must cme befre B in rder t be the presumed cause). 3. Nn-spuriusness (there can be n ther explanatin fr the crrelatin) The independent variable is the presumed cause. The dependent variable is the presumed effect. 17. (32-33) Ethical Issues in Scilgical Research. The American Scilgical Assciatin Cde f Ethics sets frth basic standards that scilgists must fllw in cnducting research. 1. Researchers must maintain bjectivity and integrity in their research by disclsing their research findings and including all pssible interpretatins f the data (even when these d nt supprt their wn viewpints) 2. Researchers must safeguard the participants right t privacy while prtecting them frm harm 3. Researchers must prtect cnfidential infrmatin prvided by participants, even when this infrmatin is nt cnsidered t be privileged (legally prtected, as in the case between dctr and patient and between attrney and client) and legal pressure is applied t reveal this infrmatin. 4. Researchers must acknwledge research cllabratin and disclse all surces f financial supprt. Due t the grwing cmplexity f ur sciety C. Wright Mills has argued, the answers f cmmn sense seem ever less adequate t deal with ever mre cmplex prblems.