9/11/2012. Chapter Goal. Learning Objectives. Chapter 4. Overview of Human Systems

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1 Chapter 4 Overview of Human Systems Chapter Goal Understand basic anatomy & physiology & how they relate to foundations of medicine Learning Objectives Define anatomy, physiology, & pathophysiology Name levels of organization of body from simplest to most complex & explain each Define homeostasis State anatomical terms for parts of body Use proper terminology to describe location of body parts with respect to one another 1

2 Learning Objectives Name body cavities & major organs within each Describe anatomical planes Identify areas of abdomen & underlying organs Define each cellular transport mechanism & role each plays in body: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, & active transport Define metabolism, anabolism, & catabolism Learning Objectives Describe how glucose is converted to energy during cellular respiration Explain how glucose, amino acids, & fats are used for energy production Describe general characteristics of each of the 4 major categories of tissues Name 3 major layers of skin & tissue of which each is made Learning Objectives Explain how bones are classified & give example of each type Explain how joints are classified & give example of each type Describe structure & function of muscles List 3 types of muscles Describe functions of skeleton 2

3 Learning Objectives State functions of nervous system Name divisions of nervous system Explain structure of neurons Describe types of nerves Describe role of polarization, depolarization, & repolarization in nerve impulse transmission State function of meninges & cerebrospinal fluid Learning Objectives Explain how negative feedback mechanism regulates hormonal secretion Identify divisions of autonomic nervous system & define their functions State functions of hormones State function of hormones found in pancreas Explain how insulin & glucagon work together Learning Objectives State functions of epinephrine & norepinephrine, & explain their relationship to sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system Describe characteristics of blood & its composition Explain function of red blood cells, white blood cells, & platelets State importance of blood clotting 3

4 Learning Objectives Describe location of heart State function of pericardium Name chambers of heart & major vessels Name valves of heart & explain their functions Describe coronary circulation & explain its purpose Describe cardiac cycle Learning Objectives Explain how heart sounds are created Name parts of cardiac conduction pathway Explain relationship between stroke volume, heart rate, & cardiac output Explain how nervous system regulates heart rate & force of contraction Learning Objectives Describe structure of arteries & veins, & relate their structure to function Describe structure of capillaries, & explain exchange processes that take place in them Describe pathway & purpose of pulmonary circulation Describe pathway & purpose of systemic circulation 4

5 Learning Objectives Define blood pressure Explain factors maintaining & regulating blood pressure Describe functions of lymphatic system Describe immune response State function of respiratory system Learning Objectives Describe structure & functions of respiratory system components Describe normal inhalation & exhalation Differentiate between ventilation & respiration Explain diffusion of gases across alveolar-capillary junction Describe how oxygen & carbon dioxide are transported in blood Learning Objectives Explain nervous & chemical mechanisms that regulate respiration Describe functions of digestive system, & name its major divisions Describe water compartments & provide name for fluid in each Explain how water moves between compartments 5

6 Learning Objectives Explain regulation of intake & output of water Describe 3 buffer systems in body fluids Explain why respiratory system has effect on ph & describe respiratory compensating mechanisms Explain renal mechanisms for ph regulation of extracellular fluid Describe effects of acidosis & alkalosis Introduction Anatomy Study of structure of organism & its parts Physiology Study of organism's normal body functions Pathophysiology Study of disease mechanisms Body's Building Blocks Cells Basic building blocks of life Approximately 100 trillion cells Specialized Cells contain various components called organelles 6

7 Body's Building Blocks Levels of organization in human body Organelle Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism Body's Building Blocks Body's Building Blocks Organelles Various components within cell Carry out processes necessary for life 7

8 Body's Building Blocks Tissue Groups of similar cells working together 4 types of tissue: Epithelial Connective Muscle Nerve Body's Building Blocks Organs Composed of different types of tissue Organ system Group of organs having common function & purpose Organ Systems Integumentary System Skeletal System 8

9 Organ Systems Muscular System Nervous System Organ Systems Endocrine System Circulatory System Organ Systems Lymphatic System Respiratory System 9

10 Organ Systems Gastrointestinal System Urinary System Organ Systems Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System Homeostasis Normal state of balance Internal mechanisms regulate functions Illness or injury interferes 10

11 Anatomical Terms Directional terms: Superior Posterior Anterior Proximal Distal Inferior Anatomical Terms Directional terms Anatomical position Upright Eyes straight ahead Arms hanging by side Feet together Palms facing forward Body Planes Body divided into imaginary planes Frontal Sagittal Midsagittal Transverse 11

12 Body Positions Supine Sitting Lateral recumbent Prone Body Cavities Hollow areas within body Cranial Spinal Thoracic Abdominal Pelvic Body Cavities Lateral view of peritoneum 12

13 Cellular Transport Healthy cells have outer membrane Separates cell contents from surrounding fluid Allows nutrients, water, electrolytes to: Enter cell Eliminate waste Prohibits: Proteins, electrolytes from leaving cell Undesirable substances from entering Cellular Transport Semipermeable Allows some substances to enter or leave Restricts passage of others Permeability Rate at which substances pass through membrane Cellular Transport Active transport processes require energy; passive transport processes do not Energy required for active transport Obtained from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Breaks down ATP and utilizes the resulting energy 13

14 Diffusion Cellular Transport Movement of particles Solutes scatter evenly Membrane Allows glucose & water to pass through Creates equilibrium Cellular Transport Facilitated diffusion transports molecules of substance across cell membrane Cellular Transport Osmosis is movement of water across semipermeable membrane 14

15 Cellular Transport Solutions & osmotic pressure Isotonic Hypotonic Hypertonic Cellular Metabolism & Respiration Cellular respiration Glucose used to generate energy Biochemical process takes place in mitochondrion Cellular Metabolism & Respiration Aerobic metabolism Normal Oxygen, glucose fuel cell Produces energy Anaerobic metabolism Low oxygen levels Less energy produced Produces lactic acid 15

16 Tissues Composed of groups of similar cells working together to accomplish common function Integumentary System Refers to body's external surface Skin Nails Hair Sweat Oil glands Major functions Temperature regulation Defense against disease-causing organisms Maintenance of fluid balance Integumentary System Layers Epidermis Dermis Subcutaneous 16

17 Skeletal System Axial & appendicular skeletons Skeletal System 206 bones Provides framework Protects internal organs Assists in movement Serves as storage site for minerals Role in formation of certain blood cells Skeletal System Role in formation of blood cells Red blood cells White blood cells 17

18 Classification of Bones Long bones Short bones Flat bones Irregular bones Components of Skeleton Axial skeleton Skull Spine Ribs Components of Skeleton Appendicular skeleton Shoulder girdle Clavicle Arms Forearms Wrists Hands Fingers 18

19 Components of Skeleton Appendicular skeleton Pelvic girdle Hips Thighs Knees Legs Ankles/feet/toes Types of Joints Immovable Slightly movable Freely movable Types of Joints Cartilage Enables bones to move freely Ligaments Bind joints together Tendons Connect muscles to bones 19

20 Muscular System Types: Skeletal Smooth Cardiac Composed of contractile tissues responsible for movement Voluntary Involuntary Nervous System Network of cells conducts information Controls 2 types of activities: Voluntary Involuntary Divided into 2 parts: Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system Nerve Cells, Types & Impulses Neuron basic structural component of nervous system Consists of: Cell body Dendrites Axons 20

21 Nerve Cells, Types & Impulses Synapse Neurotransmitters Receptor Inactivators Nerve Cells, Types & Impulses Nerve impulses Movement of cells Polarized state resting state Depolarization less negatively charged Repolarization final state Nerve Cells, Types & Impulses 21

22 Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Brain 4 major parts Cerebrum Diencephalon Brainstem Cerebellum Brain Cerebrum Top portion of brain Left, right hemispheres Controls Thinking Sensation Voluntary movement Subdivided Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe 22

23 Brain Brainstem Consists of: Medulla Pons Midbrain Contains centers that control: Involuntary respiration Heart Blood vessel function Cerebellum Located behind & below cerebrum Primary function control of body's coordination Brain Trauma Can lead to bleeding Epidural hematoma Subdural hematoma Subarachnoid hematoma Spinal Cord Cylindrical cord of nervous tissue Transmits impulses to body, causing: muscles to contract movement to occur 23

24 Central Nervous System The meninges Cover brain, spinal cord Layers Dura mater Arachnoid membrane Pia mater Peripheral Nervous System Cranial nerves Spinal nerves Autonomic nervous system Types of peripheral nerves: Sensory nerves Motor nerves Mixed nerves Peripheral Nervous System 12 pairs of cranial nerves Extend directly from brain 24

25 Peripheral Nervous System 31 pairs of spinal nerves leave spinal cord 8 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar 5 sacral 1 coccygeal Autonomic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Specialized subdivision Regulates involuntary functions of body Neurotransmitters Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system 25

26 Autonomic Nervous System Alpha receptors Beta receptors Beta 1 Beta 2 Endocrine System Glands located throughout body Secrete proteins, hormones Regulate Growth Reproduction Temperature Metabolism Blood pressure Regulation of Hormonal Secretion Tightly regulated by feedback mechanism 26

27 Endocrine System Major endocrine glands Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands Pancreas Adrenal glands Reproductive glands Blood RBC: erythrocytes WBC: leukocytes Platelets 5 types of leukocytes Heart Muscular cone-shaped Function pump blood Located behind sternum 27

28 Heart Interventricular septum Myocardium Parietal pericardium Coronary Circulation Coronary arteries Coronary veins Cardiac Cycle Repetitive pumping process Systolic blood pressure Diastolic blood pressure 28

29 Heart Sounds Normal cardiac cycle First heart sound S 1 Second heart sound S 2 One cardiac cycle Heart Sounds Abnormal heart sounds S 3 and S 4 One cardiac cycle Heart Sounds Abnormal heart sounds Murmurs Bruits Clicks & snaps 29

30 Path of Electrical Conduction Cardiac Output Amount of blood pumped through circulatory system in 1 minute Cardiac output = stroke volume X heart rate Factors influencing heart rate, stroke volume or both affect cardiac output Regulation of Heart Function Control of heart's rate/strength of contraction Brain via autonomic nervous system Hormones of endocrine system Heart tissue Receptors blood vessels/kidneys/brain/heart Monitor homeostasis Baroreceptors Respond to changes in pressure Chemoreceptors Sense changes in chemical composition of blood 30

31 Regulation of Heart Function Starling s law of the heart Arteries, Veins, & Capillaries Arteries Carry blood away Decrease size Arterioles Arteries, Veins, & Capillaries Capillaries Products are exchanged 31

32 Arteries, Veins, & Capillaries Veins Return deoxygenated blood Venules Superior vena cava Inferior vena cava Right atrium Blood Pressure Pressure exerted by circulating blood Arteries Veins Heart chambers Systolic pressure Pressure during contraction Diastolic pressure Pressure during relaxation Blood Pressure Recorded in millimeters (mm) of mercury (Hg) Recorded as fraction = systolic diastolic Normal ranges in adults Systolic = 100 mm Hg to 140 mm Hg Diastolic = 50 mm Hg to 90 mm Hg 32

33 Blood Pressure Proportional to cardiac output times total peripheral resistance Lymphatic System Passive Lymph Lymph vessels Lymph nodes Thoracic duct Immune System Defends body against Bacteria Viruses Other Types Nonspecific immunity Specific immunity 33

34 Respiratory System Respiratory System Mechanics of breathing Inhalation Exhalation Ventilation vs. respiration Ventilation movement of carbon dioxide Respiration breathing Respiratory System Gas exchange Oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange Transportation of gases Oxygen carried by hemoglobin Carbon dioxide transported in form of bicarbonate ions 34

35 Digestive System Also called gastrointestinal (GI) system Composed of structures, organs involved in: Consumption Digestion Elimination Digestive System Digestive System Hollow abdominal organs 3 parts of small intestine: Duodenum Jejunum Ileum 20 feet in length 35

36 Digestive System Solid abdominal organs Liver Spleen Pancreas Urinary System Removes waste products Maintains balance between water, salt Female Reproductive System 36

37 Male Reproductive System Special Sensory System Responsible for Light Sound Taste Odors Sensations from skin or areas outside body Eyes Vision Horizontal section viewed from above 37

38 Mouth & Tongue Taste Surface & regions sensitive to taste Ears Hearing Nose Smell 38

39 Skin Touch Interrelated with function of peripheral nervous system Receptors on skin detect: When, what we touch Heat, cold, pain Impulses transmitted to spinal cord & brain Fluids & Electrolytes Fluid Balance Loss of fluid volume Water coming into body (intake) Water excreted from body (output) Homeostasis intake must equal output 39

40 Electrolytes Salts that break up into ions Electrically charged particles 2 types of ions: Anions Cations Electrolytes Acid-Base Balance Acid Substance that increases concentration of hydrogen ions Base Substance that decreases concentration of hydrogen ions 40

41 ph ranges 0 most acidic 14 most basic 7.0 neutral Acid-Base Balance Pure water is 7.0 neutral Human body slightly alkaline Values higher alkalotic Values lower acidotic Acid-Base Balance Highly dynamic Body depends on 3 mechanisms to maintain ph Buffer systems Lungs Kidneys Acid-Base Balance Buffer Substance that can reversibly bind H + Acts as chemical sponge Buffer systems Fastest-acting defenses Provides immediate protection 41

42 Acid-Base Balance Respiratory compensation for acid-base changes Vital role in maintaining acid-base balance Regulates concentration of carbon dioxide As respiratory rate increases CO 2 is blown off Increase ventilation decrease carbon dioxide/ carbonic acid increase blood ph Decrease ventilation increase carbon dioxide/ carbonic acid decrease blood ph Acid-Base Balance Renal (kidney) compensation for acid-base changes Excrete hydrogen ions Form bicarbonate ions Indicated by ph Plasma ph drops Hydrogen ions excreted Bicarbonate ions formed & retained Plasma ph rises Hydrogen ions retained Bicarbonate ions excreted Acid-Base Balance Respiratory vs. metabolic processes Alkalosis or acidosis can occur Primary respiratory abnormality Primary metabolic abnormality If defect is respiratory CO 2 in blood goes too high or too low To compensate for too high or too low levels of CO 2: Kidneys must excrete more or less H + Depending on level Takes time 42

43 Acid-Base Balance Respiratory vs. metabolic processes Primary process metabolic Too much or too little H + in blood When metabolic problem develops Body responds quickly by changing ventilation Raising/lowering CO 2 Partially compensates for metabolic change Primary Acid-Base Disorders Respiratory acidosis Respiratory alkalosis Metabolic acidosis Metabolic alkalosis Primary Acid-Base Disorders Respiratory acidosis Signs & symptoms Hypoventilation Disorientation Loss of mental alertness Stupor 43

44 Primary Acid-Base Disorders Respiratory alkalosis Signs & symptoms Hyperventilation Numbness, prickling, tingling Mental restlessness, agitation, hysteria Unresponsiveness Primary Acid-Base Disorders Metabolic acidosis Signs & symptoms Kussmaul breathing Weakness Disorientation Coma Metabolic alkalosis Signs & symptoms Slow, shallow respirations Muscular tension Tetany Mental dullness Summary Anatomy study of body structures Physiology study of normal function of these structures Pathophysiology evaluates abnormal function All body s systems work together to maintain state of normal function homeostasis When one system is altered, others are affected 44

45 Summary Various organ systems of body provide: Support (skeletal system) Movement (muscular system) Overall control of bodily functions (nervous system) Respiratory system: Facilitates intake & absorption of oxygen into blood Delivered to tissues by circulatory system Food & water absorbed by digestive & lymphatic systems Summary Endocrine system: Produces hormones that aid in metabolism of food Other chemical processes Body wastes are excreted by combined actions of: Urinary (urine) systems Gastrointestinal (stool) systems Respiratory (CO 2 ) systems Immune system defends body against: Invasion by organisms Foreign substances Summary Important component of immunity Integumentary system Skin, nails, hair, sweat, & oil glands This system provides: Body s external covering Temperature regulation Protection Special sensory systems allow for senses of vision, taste, hearing, smell, touch 45

46 Questions? 46