Ch 1.1 An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology. Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Transcription

1 Ch 1.1 An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

2 The Human Body An Orientation Anatomy Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts Physiology Study of how the body and its parts work or function

3 Regional vs. Systemic Anatomy Regional anatomy includes all structures in a body region studied at the same time. i.e. the leg: bones, muscles, blood vessels, etc. Systemic anatomy includes all organs of an organ system studied simultaneously i.e. in studying the skeletal system, all the bones of the body are studied.

4 Gross vs. Microscopic Anatomy Gross anatomy studies easily visible structures Large structures Easily observable Microscopic Anatomy studies structures that cannot be viewed without a microscope Very small structures such as cells and tissues Can only be viewed with a microscope Figure 14.1

5 Developmental Anatomy vs. Embryology Developmental anatomy studies the changes in body structure that occur throughout life. Embryology considers only those changes that occur from conception to birth.

6 Histology vs. Cytology Histology study of tissues, collections of cells with similar structure and function. Cytology study of parts of a cell and the functions of those parts.

7 Relationship between anatomy & physiology: Although it is possible to study anatomy and physiology individually, they are really inseparable because function always reflects structure. What a structure can do depends on its specific form. This is called the principle of complementarity of structure and function

8 Ch 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization Figure 1.1

9 Levels of Structural Organization Molecules Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules Figure 1.1, step 1

10 Levels of Structural Organization Smooth muscle cell Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules Molecules Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules Figure 1.1, step 2

11 Levels of Structural Organization Smooth muscle cell Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules Molecules Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells Smooth muscle tissue Figure 1.1, step 3

12 Levels of Structural Organization Smooth muscle cell Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules Molecules Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells Smooth muscle tissue Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Blood vessel (organ) Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues Figure 1.1, step 4

13 Levels of Structural Organization Smooth muscle cell Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules Molecules Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells Smooth muscle tissue Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues Blood vessel (organ) Cardiovascular system Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely Figure 1.1, step 5

14 Levels of Structural Organization Smooth muscle cell Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules Molecules Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells Smooth muscle tissue Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues Blood vessel (organ) Cardiovascular system Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely Organismal level Human organisms are made up of many organ systems Figure 1.1, step 6

15 Organ System Overview Integumentary Forms the external body covering Protects deeper tissue from injury Helps regulate body temperature Location of cutaneous nerve receptors Figure 1.2a

16 Organ System Overview Skeletal Protects and supports body organs Provides muscle attachment for movement Site of blood cell formation Stores minerals Figure 1.2b

17 Organ System Overview Muscular Produces movement Maintains posture Produces heat Figure 1.2c

18 Organ System Overview Nervous Fast-acting control system Responds to internal and external change Activates muscles and glands Figure 1.2d

19 Organ System Overview Endocrine Secretes regulatory hormones Growth Reproduction Metabolism Figure 1.2e

20 Organ System Overview Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood Carries oxygen and CO 2 Heart pumps blood

21 Organ System Overview Lymphatic System Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream Houses white blood cells (WBC) involved in immunity

22 Organ System Overview Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes CO2 Gas exchanges occur through the wall of the air sacs of the lungs

23 Organ System Overview Digestive System Breaks food down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces

24 Organ System Overview Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood

25 Organ System Overview Male Reproductive System Overall function is to produce offspring Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone Ducts and glands air in delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract.

26 Organ System Overview Female Reproductive System Overall function is production of offspring Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones Other structures serve as site for fertilization and development of the fetus Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn

27 Ch 1.3 Maintaining Life

28 Necessary Life Functions What does this highly organized human body do? We will briefly discuss 8 necessary life functions.

29 Necessary Life Functions Maintaining Boundaries: Keeps the body s internal environment distinct from the external environment Movement: Activities promoted by the muscular system, i.e. Walking, throwing a ball, riding a bike Locomotion Movement of substances

30 Necessary Life Functions Responsiveness: Ability to react to stimuli; a major role of the nervous system Ability to sense changes and react Digestion: Breaking down food to its chemical building blocks Break-down and absorption of nutrients

31 Necessary Life Functions Metabolism: All chemical reactions occurring in the body Produces energy Makes body structures Excretion: the process of removing wastes from the body, i.e. Elimination of Co2 by the lungs and nitrogenous wastes by the kidneys Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions

32 Necessary Life Functions Reproduction: Provides new cells for growth and repair and the process of the production of offspring Produces future generation Growth: Occurs when constructive activities occur at a faster rate than destructive activities. Increases cell size and number of cells

33 Survival Needs The ultimate goal of all body systems is to maintain life. Life requires survival needs, there are 5 factors: Nutrients: chemical substances found in the diet used for energy and cell building Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals Oxygen: chemical reactions that release energy from foods are oxidative reactions requiring oxygen Required for chemical reactions

34 Survival Needs Water: Provided the basis for body fluids of all types 60 80% of body weight Provides for metabolic reaction Normal Body Temperature: Molecules become nonfunctional when temp. is too high or low and physiological activities cease. Stable body temperature Atmospheric Pressure: needed for normal operation of the respiratory system and breathing Must be appropriate

35 Homeostasis Homeostasis maintenance of a stable internal environment A dynamic state of equilibrium Homeostasis is necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life Homeostatic imbalance A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease

36 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to Change detected by receptor Stimulus: Produces change in variable Receptor (sensor) Control center Variable (in homeostasis) The body communicates through neural and hormonal control systems Receptor Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli) Sends information to control center Figure 1.4, step 3

37 Control center Determines set point Analyzes information Determines appropriate response Effector Provides a means for response to the stimulus Figure 1.4, step 1a

38 Negative feedback Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity Works like a household thermostat

39 Positive feedback Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby

40 Homeostasis Key Point Key point: Point out to students that even though they may not be regularly exposed to extremes such as heatstroke or frostbite, the body is still in a constant state of flux, balancing between a range of normal values that is rarely static.

41 Negative Feedback Key Point A simple, clear method of demonstrating negative feedback is to discuss the thermostat in the classroom. Students can easily understand the negative feedback system of the HVAC system at work. Key point: Negative feedback loops are the chief regulators of homeostasis under normal healthy conditions. A rise in any given value (e.g., blood ph, heart rate, blood pressure) precipitates a reaction to lower it, until such time as it becomes too low, causing negative feedback to initiate responses to raise it again.

42 Positive Feedback Key Point: Positive feedback is more difficult to understand than negative feedback. A brief explanation of the process of childbirth is usually the clearest way to present this concept in a context that most students are familiar with. Key point: Positive feedback loops are more rare than negative feedback loops. Positive feedback is reserved for events such as childbirth, which involve an everincreasing buildup of responses that trigger the next response until they bring about the culmination of a major event. Like a nuclear reaction, positive feedback involves a series of chain reactions of everincreasing magnitude.

43 Ch 1.4 The Language of Anatomy

44 The Language of Anatomy Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding Exact anatomical terms are used for Position Direction Regions Structures

45 Anatomical Position and Directional Terms Anatomical position is a standard body position: Standing at attention, palms facing forward and the thumbs pointing away from the face. The heels are slightly raised to show the plantar surface of the foot. Directional terms allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another by using anatomical terms.

46 Directional Terms Table 1.1 (1 of 3)

47 Directional Terms Table 1.1 (2 of 3)

48 Directional Terms Key point: It is important for students to understand that proximal and distal terminology is used relative to the midline of the body. Table 1.1 (3 of 3)

49 Regional Terms Regional terms used to designate specific areas within the major body divisions are indicated in the next figures. The common term for each of these body regions is also provided in parenthesis.

50 Regional Terms Anterior body landmarks Figure 1.5a

51 Regional Terms Posterior body landmarks Figure 1.5b

52 Body Planes and Sections A sagittal section is a vertical plane that divides the body (or organ) into left and right parts A median, or midsagittal, section is a sagittal plane lying exactly in the midline, it divides the body (or organ) into equal left and right parts Parasagittal are all other sagittal planes offset from the midline

53 Body Planes and Sections A frontal section divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior parts Also called a coronal plane

54 Body Planes and Sections A transverse, or horizontal, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts Also called a cross section Cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and vertical planes are called oblique sections

55 Body Planes and Sections Figure 1.6

56 Body Cavities Dorsal body cavity Cranial cavity houses the brain Spinal cavity houses the spinal cord Ventral body cavity Thoracic cavity houses heart, lungs and others Abdominopelvic cavity houses digestive system and most urinary system organs

57 Abdominopelvic Quadrants Figure 1.8a

58 9 Abdominopelvic Regions Figure 1.8b

59 Abdominopelvic Major Organs Figure 1.8c