Final EXAM Review PSK4U

Transcription

1 Final EXAM Review PSK4U

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3 What is it? The anatomical position is: the universal accepted starting point used to describe or analyze anatomical terms or movement. To be in correct anatomical position, the body must meet 3 criteria: 1. Upright, standing position 2. Face and feet pointing forward 3. Arms at the side, palms facing forward But how do we use the anatomical position to describe movement?

4 Before looking specifically at movement, we first have to understand how to describe movement. By the end of this lesson you will be introduced to 3 concepts: 1. Planes 2. Axes 3. Position You will be learning and expected to use a new language from here on in!

5 Anatomical Planes -relate to positions in space and found at right angles to each other -these planes can be positioned on any specific parts of the body Frontal(Coronal) -vertical; splits the body into front and back halves

6 Frontal section of the human face

7 Anatomical Planes -relate to positions in space and found at right angles to each other -these planes can be positioned on any specific parts of the body Frontal(Coronal) -vertical; splits the body into front and back halves Sagittal -vertical; splits the body into left and right halves

8 Sagittal view of the human face

9 Anatomical Planes -relate to positions in space and found at right angles to each other -these planes can be positioned on any specific parts of the body Frontal(Coronal) -vertical; splits the body into front and back halves Sagittal -vertical; splits the body into left and right halves Transverse -horizontal; splits the body into upper and lower halves

10 Transverse view of the human thigh

11 The Frontal Plane

12 The Sagittal Plane

13 The Transverse Plane

14 Anatomical Axes -a lot of our movement occurs via our joints -axes are used to describe the direction of movement at joints Longitudinal Antero-posterior -horizontal; extends from front to back -rotate side to side -vertical; extends superior (head) to inferior (foot) -rotate around Horizontal -horizontal; runs from one side of the body to the other -rotate top to bottom

15 Body Position Terminology The following terms will become like a second language for you. These terms are used to describe position of the body and will be used extensively when we talk about muscles and bones Superior- towards the top of the body (cranial) Inferior- towards the bottom of the body (caudal) Anterior- towards the front of the body (ventral) Posterior- towards the back of the body (dorsal) Medial- towards the midline(centre) of the body Lateral- away from the midline of the body Proximal- situated closest to the point of attachment Distal- situated farthest from the point of attachment Superficial- on or close to the surface of the body Deep- farther away from the surface of the body

16 Finding Axes and Planes Axis of rotation is always perpendicular to the plane of movement In the anatomical position: all flexion/extension occurs in the sagittal plane, all abduction/adduction occurs in the frontal plane, and all rotation occurs in the transverse plane More involved movements usually occur as a combination of motions from more than one plane Transverse Plane Longitudinal Axis 90 o

17 Relationship Between Axes and Planes Axis of Rotation Plane of Motion Example Horizontal (Bilateral) Sagittal Flexion/Extension Longitudinal (Polar) Transverse Rotation of extremities/axial rotation Antero-Posterior Frontal Abduction/Adduction

18 Various Planes of Movement Stride Jump Antero-Posterior Frontal Side Bend Antero-Posterior Frontal Elbow extension Horizontal Sagittal Nodding head yes Horizontal Sagittal Twirling Longitudinal Transverse Shaking head no Longitudinal Transverse

19 Let s apply our knowledge Using what you have learned today, for each of these movements: 1)cartwheel and 2) figure skater spin, describe the motion by which plane and axis each movement occurs Plane: Frontal Plane: Transverse Axis: Anteroposterier Axis: Longitudinal

20 Flexion-Extension Flexion - reduces the angle between two bones at a joint Extension - increases the angle between two bones at a joint Usually a sagittal plane movement E.g., Biceps curl Lifting the weight reduces the angle at the joint = flexion Lowering the weight increases the angle at the join = extension Flexion Extension

21 Dorsiflexion-Plantar flexion Modified flexion with respect to ankle joint Dorsiflexion - bringing the top of the foot toward the lower leg or shin Plantar flexion - planting the foot Dorsiflexion Plantar Flexion

22 Abduction-Adduction Abduction moving a segment away from the midline Adduction moving segment towards the midline of the body Frontal plane movement E.g., The motions of the arms and legs during a jumping jack Hint: Abduct = take away from the midline Adduct = add towards the midline Abduction Adduction

23 Circumduction A cone of movement that does not include any rotation Occurs when flexion-extension movements are combined with abduction-adduction movements E.g. Tracing an imaginary circle in the air with your index finger The tip of your finger represents the base of the cone, while your knuckle forms the apex of this conical motion

24 Rotation Turning of a bone on its longitudinal axis Medial rotation - rotation towards the midline Lateral rotation - rotation away from the midline

25 Pronation-supination Movements relative to the forearm and hand Pronation - when the palm is moved to face posteriorly Supination - when the palm is moved to face anteriorly (hint: you can hold a bowl of soup) Pronation Supination

26 Inversion-Eversion Movements relative to the sole of the foot Inversion - When the sole is turned inward (as when you "go over" on your ankle) Eversion - When the sole is turned outward or away from the median plane of the body Inversion Eversion

27 Protraction -moving in an anterior (forward) direction -occurs in sagittal plan Retraction -moving in a posterior (backward) direction -occurs in sagittal plane Oppostion -thumb comes into contact with another finger Reposition -return thumb to anatomical position

28 Elevation Depression -raising up to a more superior position -occurs in frontal plane -pulling down to a more inferior position -occurs in frontal plane

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30 What is the skeleton? made up of bones -300 at birth 206 by adulthood -why? The main functions of the skeletal system are: Structural support Protection Growth centre for cells Reservoir for minerals Movement -some fuse over time (ex. Plates in the skull and lower parts of the vertebral column) -support for muscles and skin -protects the sensitive/delicate parts of body (brain, heart, lungs,etc) -red blood cells and platelets -stores calcium and phosphorus -contracting muscles pull on bones for movement

31 Structure of the Skeleton the human skeleton is divided into 2 main sections: the AXIAL and APPENDICULAR AXIAL from axis centreline comprised of the vertebral column (spine), the spinal column and skull the core of the body protects the most important parts of the body: heart, lungs, spinal cord, brain, etc most muscles will originate from parts of the axial skeleton

32 APPENDICULAR think of appendage includes the moveable limbs and the supporting structures (girdles) shoulder pelvis plays a key role in allowing movement There are 5 types of bones you need to be familiar with...

33 Long bone - greater length than width - consist of a shaft and extremities (ends) slightly curved for strength consist mostly of compact bone (dense bone with few spaces) but also contain considerable amounts of spongy bone (bone with large spaces) Short bones -commonly found in wrists somewhat cube-shaped and nearly equal in length and width spongy except at the surface where there is a thin layer of compact bone Flat bones generally thin and composed of two more or less parallel plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone flat bones afford considerable protection and provide extensive areas for muscle attachment Sesamoid bones are small bones in tendons where considerable pressure develops, for instance, the wrist their number varies greatly from person to person all people have at least two sesamoid bones: the patella (kneecap) Irregular bones have complex shapes and cannot be grouped into any of the other three categories they vary in the amount of spongy and compact bone

34 The Anatomy of a Bone Bones may look like they are dead, but in fact are very much alive, growing and changing all the time. Before we talk about how bones grow and change, we first need to understand the various parts of a bone. Using figure 2.3 on page 12 in your text, label the picture below, and using the information on page 12, complete the structure function chart. Articular cartilage Periosteum Cancellous bone Medullary cavity Compact bone Epiphyseal plate Epiphysis Diaphysis (shaft) Epiphysis (head)

35 Structure Articular cartilage Cancellous bone Epiphyseal plate Medullary cavity Periosteum Compact bone Epiphysis Diaphysis Function -covers/protects ends of bones; allows smooth movement of joints; no blood/nerve endings -spongy, marrow-filled; will strengthen with resistance training -cartilage at each end of bone (growth plate); allows longitudinal bone growth -inside shaft; contains red and yellow marrow; production of red blood cells -outer connective tissue;covers length of bone; connects bone to bone or muscle -most dense bone; structural integrity happiest -ends of bone; compact; articulates with another bone -thickest part of bone; shaft

36 a) Calvaria Frontal Bone Parietal Bone Occipital Bone Temporal Bone

37 Calvaria Cont. May be fractured in blows to the skull (e.g., in hockey, being checked and hitting the skull on the ice) Temporal bone: more fragile of the calvaria bones overlies one of the major blood vessels if fractured and displaced internally = medical emergency (picture)

38 b) Facial Bones Lacrimal Bone Nasal Bone Zygomatic Bone Maxilla Bone Mandible Bone

39 Vertebral Column 7 Cervical Vertebrae (of the neck) Lumbar vertebra, lateral view 12 Thoracic Vertebrae (of the chest) Lumbar vertebra, superior view 5 Lumbar Vertebrae (of the lower back) Sacrum (mid-line region of buttocks) Coccyx (4 or 5 fused vertebrae of the tail bone)

40 Vertebral Column Vertebrae are arranged in a cylindrical column interspersed with fibrocartilaginous (intervertebral) discs Function: provides a strong and flexible support for the body and the ability to keep the body erect the point of attachment for the muscles of the back. protect the spinal cord and nerves absorbs shock through the intervertebral discs without causing damage to other vertebrae

41 Ribs Twelve pairs Made up of : bone cartilage which strengthen the chest cage and permit it to expand. Curved and slightly twisted making it ideal to protect the chest area

42 Ribs Cont d All 12 pairs of ribs articulate with the twelve thoracic vertebrae posteriorly Classified into three groups based on anterior attachment: (picture) true ribs 1-7 attach to both the vertebrae and the sternum false ribs 8-10 attach only to the sternum indirectly, through 7 th rib floating ribs 11 and 12 only attach to the vertebral column

43 The Ribs Manubrium Sternal Body True Ribs (1-7) Xiphoid Process Costal Cartilages Floating Ribs (11-12) False Ribs (8-10)

44 Sternum Mid-line breast bone The clavicles and ribs one to seven articulate with the sternum Sternum comprised of the manubrium, sternal body and xiphoid process

45 Appendicular skeleton Consists of: 1. The pectoral gridle (chest) 2. Pelvic girdle (hip) 3. The upper limbs 4. The lower limbs

46 Clavicle 1.Pectoral Girdle Consists of: Scapula (shoulder blade) Clavicle (collar bone) Scapula Allows the upper limb great mobility The sternoclavicular joint is the only point of attachment between the axial skeleton and the pectoral girdle

47 2. Pelvic Girdle Formed by pair of os coxae (hip bones) supports the bladder and abdominal contents Attachment: Posteriorly join with the sacrum Anteriorly - join to each other anteriorly Laterally join to the head of thigh bone through a cup-shaped acetabulum

48 3. Upper Limb Humerus Humerus The arm bone shoulder to elbow Radius and Ulna The forearm bones elbow to wrist Radius Ulna the radius being located on the thumb side of the hand when you pronate the forearm, the radius is actually crossing over the ulna - try it yourself

49 Upper Limb Cont. Carpals Proximal Phalanx Metacarpals Distal Phalanx Middle Phalanx Phalanges

50 4. Lower Limb Femur thigh bone from hip to knee Patella knee cap sesamoid bone in the tendon of the quadriceps muscles (thigh) Femur Patella

51 Lower Limb Cont d Tibia and Fibula leg bones From knee to ankle Tibia is medial and fibula is lateral Medial malleolus and Lateral malleolus The distal ends of the tibia and fibula, respectively commonly referred to as the "ankle bones" can be easily palpated Fibula Tibia Lat. malleolus Med. malleolus

52 Lower Limb Cont d Talus Tarsals ankle bones calcaneus or the heel bone talus Metatarsals 5 bones of the foot unite with the toes Phalanges toe bones three per toe except the big toe - proximal, middle and distal Calcaneus Metatarsals Tarsals Phalanges

53 MUSCLE

54 Major Functions of Muscles Movement (connected to bone) Includes: breathing, running, walking, eating, and the beating of our hearts Act as cables which pull on bones and make motion possible Muscles work in pairs-one to pull and one to put back Support-organs and skeletal system Posture and protection Heat production-during muscle contraction There are over 600 muscles in the human body.

55 Three Types of Muscle Tissue -collection of cells that shorten during contraction creating tension that results in movement Skeletal muscles: Voluntary (brain controls), striated Attach to bones by tendons (tough connective tissue) and other tissue Fast and slow twitch fibers Cardiac muscles: Involuntary (ANS control) Striated Found in one place the heart (thick walls) Smooth muscles: Involuntary Non-striated Surround the body s internal organs Contracts more slowly than skeletal but stays contracted longer Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle

56 Properties of Muscle Fibre Irritability Refers to muscle responding to stimuli Contractibility Elasticity Extensibility Refers to muscle shortening in length Refers to muscle stretching and returning to normal position Refers to muscle extending in length Conductivity Refers to muscle transmitting nerve impulses

57 Neuromuscular System Complex linkage between the muscular system and nervous system (system of nervous impulses originating in the brain and spinal cord) Constant use and regular practice will improve the quality and efficiency of these 2 systems Nerve transmits impulses in waves to ensure smooth movements MUSCLE TWITCH Single nerve impulse and the corresponding muscle contraction Latent period, contraction and period of relaxtion Junction between the muscular system and nervous system NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

58 Electrical impulse travel along the nerve path until contact point Impulse signals the release of chemical neurotransmitter Receptors on surface of the muscle detect the chemical This causes the muscles to contract Electrical energy is converted to chemical energy which is then converted to mechanical work Axon Terminal Synaptic Cleft Neuromuscular Junction Axon Neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach) Sarcolemma Receptor

59 The Motor Unit -motor neuron, its axon and the muscle fibres it stimulates Dendrites Neuron cell body Axon hillock Motor neuron Direction of action potential Myelin sheath Neurolemma Neuromuscular junction Terminal branches Muscle fibres Motor end plate

60 Motor Units Motor Units Small motor unit-usually slow twitch fibres Few muscle fibres that it stimulates Responsible for fine motor (muscle) movement» Motor unit of the eye Large motor unit-usually fast twitch fibres Many muscle fibres stimulated Produce large motor movement» Single motor unit in quadriceps may stimulate muscle fibres» In order to generate max force in large muscles, all motor units must be recruited in unison

61 Rule for motor units All or None Principle When a motor unit is stimulated to contract it will do so to its fullest potential More specifically if a motor unit is activated all of the muscle fibres in that given motor unit will contract maximally (or not at all) Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc All material is copyright

62 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc All material is copyright protected. It is illegal to copy any of this material. The Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle Muscle fibre (basic unit of skeletal muscle) from the outside Epimysium Sheath enveloping entire muscle Extends beyond muscle and becomes one with tendon Perimysium Fibrous connective tissue that binds muscle fibres together Perimysium Muscle fibre Epimysium Endomysium Muscle belly Tendon

63 The Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle Muscle fibre looking inward: Endomysium Sheath of connective tissue surrounding muscle fibre Sarcolemma Beneath endomysium Contains cytoplasm (sarcoplasm) Myofibrils Thread like structure that run the length Contain thick protein filament (myosin) and thin proteinilament (actin) Sarcomeres Contains myosin and actin Endomysium

64 Muscle Fibre Perimysium Muscle belly Epimysium Muscle Fibre Z line Sarcomere Z line Tendon Muscle Fibre Thick filament Thin filament Sarcomere Sarcolemma Sarcoplasmic reticulum Myofibril

65 Protein Filaments Actin and myosin are contained within compartments (sarcomere) Myosin Head and a tail Looks like golf club Head has an attachment site for actin Actin Two binding sites for other protein that work together to control myosin binding to action Troponin-which binds calcium Tropomysoin-covers the binding site on actin During contraction these two proteins interact allowing them to slide past each other (sarcomere shortens) Sliding is synchronized across the muscles

66 How Muscles Are Named Action/Function Flexion/Extension Direction of Fibres Rectus/Transversus Location Anterior/Posterior Number of Divisions/Heads Number of heads Shape Deltoid/Trapezius Points of Attachment Sternum/Clavicle/Mastoid process

67 Adductor Examples Squeeze limbs in towards the median line of the body Abductor Push out from the median line of the body Extensor- extend limbs and increase the angle Flexor Withdraw limbs and decrease angle

68 How Muscles Attach to Bone Indirect attachment: Epimysium extends past muscle as a tendon Attaches to periosteum of bone Direct attachment: Epimysium adheres to and fuses with the periosteum Point of attachment

69 Antagonistic Pairs Skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing pairs Agonist muscle Responsible for primary movement Antagonist Muscle Counteracts the agonist Lengths when agonist contracts

70 Antagonistic Pairs-Opposing Pairs Examples Agonist (Prime Mover) Antagonist (Counteracts) Elbow flexion Biceps brachii Triceps brachii Shoulder abduction Deltoid Latissimus dorsi Medial shoulder rotation Pectoralis major Infraspinatus Knee extension Quadriceps Hamstrings Wrist flexion Flexor carpi radialis Extensor carpi radialis Dorsi flexion Tibialis anterior Gastrocnemius Trunk flexion Rectus abdominis Erector spinae group Hip flexion Iliopsoas Gluteus maximus

71 Origin, Insertion, and Function Origin: Proximal attachment Insertion: Where muscle attaches to the least moveable area of the bones of the axial skeleton Distal attachment Function: Where muscle attaches to the bone that is moved most Action/motion What the muscle does when activated Origin Insertion

72 Types of Muscle Contraction Concentric: Muscle fibres shorten Eccentric: Muscle fibres lengthen Isometric: Muscle fibres do not change in length

73 Muscle Contraction During Exercise Isotonic exercise Controlled shortening (concentric contraction) and lengthening (eccentric) of the muscle As the weight is lifted throughout the range of motion, the muscle shortens. Isometric exercise No motion muscle fibres maintain a constant length throughout contraction Isokinetic exercise Use machines to control speed of contractions Combines best features of both isotonic and isometric training istockphoto.com/ Max Delson

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75 Sarcomere Smallest contractile unit of a muscle fibre Lined up the length of every myofibril Between 2 Z discs (mid point of I band) I band A band H zone M line

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77 Events at the Neuromuscular Junction

78 Sarcoplasmic Reticulum and T-Tubules of the Sarcolemma Myofibril Outer vessicle of sarcoplasmic reticulum (Terminal cisternae) Longitudinal tubules of sarcoplasmic reticulum Transverse tubule (T-tubule) H zone Triad Terminal cisternae Transverse tubule Terminal cisternae A band Z line I band Myofibrils

79 Excitation and Contraction Coupling

80 The Sliding Filament Theory Myosin crossbridges (small bridges on the thick filaments that extend to the thin filaments): Attach, rotate, detach, and reattach in rapid succession Results in the sliding or overlap of the actin and myosin filaments Causes sarcomere to contract (muscle contraction) Known as the sliding filament theory

81 The Sliding Filament Theory Myosin crossbridges (small bridges on the thick filaments that extend to the thin filaments)

82 The Sliding Filament Theory Myosin crossbridges Attach, rotate, detach, and re-attach in rapid succession

83 The Sliding Filament Theory Myosin crossbridges Results in the sliding or overlap of the actin and myosin filaments Causes sarcomere to contract (muscle contraction)

84 Cross Bridge Cycle

85 At the Molecular Level The sliding filament theory at the molecular level: Nerve impulse transmitted through the muscle fibre and releases calcium ions Calcium (in presence of troponin and tropomyosin) facilitates the interaction of myosin and actin molecules Calcium binds to troponin and removes the blocking action of tropomyosin Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy source behind the release of calcium ATP detaches myosin from the actin molecule ATP must be replaced through food metabolism for process to continue

86 Anterior Muscles

87 Posterior Muscles

88 Muscles of the Neck Semispinalis capitis Splenius Sternocleidomastoid Scalenus medius Scalenus anterior

89 Muscles of the Vertebral Column Nuchal line Occipital bone Mastoid process Spinalis Longissimus Iliocostalis Erector spinae group

90 Muscles of Respiration Internal thoracic artery and vein Sternum Internal intercostals Transversus thoracis Diaphragm (thoracic) Transversus abdominis

91 Muscles of the Abdomen External oblique Rectus abdominis Quadratus lumborum (deep)

92 Muscles of the Shoulder Clavicular head of pectoralis major Sterncostal head of pectoralis major

93 Muscles of the Shoulder cont d Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Infraspinatus Latissimus dorsi

94 Muscles of the Rotator Cuff Supraspinatus Teres minor Infraspinatus

95 Muscles of the Rotator Cuff cont d Subscapularis

96 Muscles that Act on the Scapula Trapezius Levator scapulae Rhomboid minor Rhomboid major Teres major

97 Muscles that Act on the Scapula cont d Teres major

98 Muscles that Move the Humerus Deltoid (anterior and lateral heads) Coracobrachialis

99 Muscles that Move the Humerus cont d Coracobrachialis Pectoralis minor Serratus anterior

100 Elbow Flexors / Extensors Anterior Biceps brachii Brachialis Pronator teres Brachioradialis

101 Elbow Flexors / Extensors Posterior Triceps brachii (short head) Triceps brachii (long head)

102 Muscles of the Forearm Anterior Biceps brachii Pronator teres Brachioradialis Pronator quadratus (deep)

103 Muscles of the Forearm Posterior Brachioradialis Triceps brachii (lateral head) Anconeus

104 Muscles of the Forearm Posterior (deep) Supinator

105 Extrinsic Hand Muscles Anterior Flexor carpi radialis Palmaris longus Flexor carpi ulnaris Flexor digitorum superficialis

106 Extrinsic Hand Muscles Posterior Extensor carpi radialis longus Extensor digitorum Extensor carpi ulnaris Extensor carpi radialis brevis Extensor digit minimi

107 Intrinsic Hand Muscles Thenar eminence Hypothenar eminence

108 Muscles of the Hip Anterior Psoas minor Psoas major Iliacus Tensor fasciae latae Sartorius Iliopsoas Pectineus Gracilis Rectus femoris Iliotibial tract (band)

109 Muscles of the Hip Posterior Gluteus medius Gluteus maximus (cut) Gluteus minimus Gracilis

110 Muscles of the Hip Anterior (adductors) Pectineus (cut) Adductor brevis Adductor longus Adductor group Adductor magnus

111 Muscles of the Thigh Anterior Quadriceps femoris group Rectus femoris Vastus intermedius (underneath) Vastus lateralis Vastus medialis

112 Muscles of the Thigh Posterior Semitendinosus Biceps femoris Hamstring muscle group Semimembranosus

113 Extrinsic Foot Muscles Anterior Extensor digitorum longus Tibialis anterior Extensor hallucis longus

114 Extrinsic Foot Muscles Posterior Gastrocnemius (medial and lateral heads) Soleus Calcaneal tendon (Achilles tendon)

115 Extrinsic Foot Muscles Posterior (deep) Popliteus Tibialis posterior Flexor digitorum longus Fibularis (Peroneus) longus Flexor hallucis longus Fibularis (Peroneus) brevis

116 Intrinsic Foot Muscles Superficial Flexor digitorum brevis

117 Intrinsic Foot Muscles Intermediate Quadratus plantae

118 Intrinsic Foot Muscles Deep Flexor hallucis brevis